Inventions during the Industrial Revolution. The main dates of the Napoleonic wars. Difference and Analytical Machines

The Industrial Revolution - an innovative period of the mid-18th and 19th centuries - transported people from a predominantly agrarian existence to a relatively urban lifestyle. Although we call this era "revolution", its name is somewhat misleading. This movement, which originated in Britain, was not a sudden burst of advancement, but a series of successive breakthroughs that supported or fed each other.

Just like the dotcoms were integral part In the 1990s, it was the inventions that made this era unique. Without all these brilliant minds, many of the important goods and services we use today would simply not exist. Whether the inventor was a mere theoretical dreamer or a stubborn creator of important things, this revolution has changed the lives of many people (including us).

Difference and analytical machines

For many of us, the phrase “put your calculators aside for the exam” will always be a concern, but such exams without calculators show how life was like for Charles Babbage. The English inventor and mathematician was born in 1791; over time, his task was to study mathematical tables in search of errors. Such tables were typically used in astronomy, banking, and engineering, and because they were handwritten, they were often in error. Babbage conceived a calculator and eventually developed several models.

Of course, Babbage could not have modern computer components like transistors, so his computers were purely mechanical. They were surprisingly large, complex and difficult to build (none of Babbage's machines appeared during his lifetime). For example, the number one difference engine could solve polynomials, but its design consisted of 25,000 separate parts with a total weight of 15 tons. Difference Engine Number Two was developed between 1847 and 1849 and was more elegant, with comparable power and three times less weight.

There was another design that gave Babbage the title of father of modern computing, according to some people. In 1834, Babbage decided to create a machine that could be programmed. Like modern computers, Babbage's machine could store data for later use in other calculations and perform logical operations such as if-then. Babbage was not particularly concerned with the design of the analytical engine, as was the case with the difference engines, but to imagine the grandeur of the first, you need to know that it was so massive that it needed a steam engine to work.

Pneumatic tire

Like many inventions of this era, the pneumatic tire "stood on the shoulders of giants", entering a new wave of inventions. Thus, although John Dunlop is often credited with inventing this important thing, Charles Goodyear had patented the rubber vulcanization process before him in 1839.

Before Goodyear's experiments, rubber was a very new product with a relatively small range of applications, but this, thanks to its properties, changed very quickly. Vulcanization, in which the rubber was hardened with sulfur and lead, created a more durable material suitable for the manufacturing process.

While rubber technology developed rapidly, other accompanying inventions to the Industrial Revolution developed much more slowly. Despite advances such as pedals and steerable wheels, bicycles remained more of a curiosity than a practical form of transportation for much of the 19th century, as they were bulky, their frames were heavy, and their wheels were rigid and difficult to maneuver.

Dunlop, a veterinarian by trade, noted all of these shortcomings when he watched his son struggle with the tricycle and decided to fix them. First, he tried to wrap a garden hose in a ring and wrap it in liquid rubber. This variant proved to be significantly superior to the existing leather and reinforced rubber tires. Very soon Dunlop began manufacturing bicycle tires with the help of W. Edlin and Co., which later became the Dunlop Rubber Company. It quickly took over the market and boosted bicycle production significantly. Shortly thereafter, the Dunlop Rubber Company began manufacturing rubber tires for another product of the Industrial Revolution, the automobile.

As with rubber, the practical application of the following point for a long time was not obvious.

Anesthesia

Light bulb inventions take up many pages in the history book, but we are sure that any practicing surgeon would call anesthesia the best product industrial revolution. Before her invention, the correction of any ailment was perhaps more painful than the ailment itself. One of the most big problemsassociated with the extraction of a tooth or limb, was to keep the patient relaxed, often with the help of alcohol and opium. Today, of course, we can all thank the anesthesia for the fact that few of us can remember the painful sensations of the operation in general.

Nitrous oxide and ether were discovered in the early 1800s, but neither has found much practical use other than uselessly intoxicating. Nitrous oxide was generally better known as laughing gas and was used to entertain the audience. During one such demonstration, a young dentist, Horace Wells, saw someone inhale the gas and injure his leg. When the man returned to his seat, Wells asked if it hurt the victim, and heard in response that no. After that, the dentist decided to use laughing gas in his work, and volunteered to be the first test subject himself. The next day, Wells and Gardner Colton, the show's organizer, already experienced laughing gas in Wells' office. The gas worked great.

Shortly thereafter, ether was also tested as anesthesia for long-term operations, although who actually was behind the attraction of this drug is not known for certain.

The photo

Many of the world-changing inventions came about during the Industrial Revolution. The camera was not one of them. In fact, the camera's predecessor, known as the camera obscura, dates back to the late 1500s.

Keeping camera snapshots has been a challenge for a long time, however, especially if you didn't have time to render them. Then Nicefort Niepce came. In the 1820s, a Frenchman came up with the idea of \u200b\u200boverlaying coated paper filled with light-sensitive chemicals, onto the image projected by the camera obscura. Eight hours later, the world's first photograph appeared.

Realizing that eight hours is too long to pose in shooting mode family portraitNiepce joined forces with Louis Daguerre to improve his design, and it was Daguerre who continued Niepce's work after his death in 1833. The so-called daggerotype first aroused enthusiasm in the French parliament and then throughout the world. However, while the daguerreotype could create very detailed images, they could not be replicated.

Daguerre's contemporary, William Henry Fox Talbot, also worked to improve photographic images in the 1830s and made the first negative through which light could flash on photographic paper and create a positive. Similar advances began to quickly find their place, and gradually cameras became able to even shoot moving objects, and the exposure time was reduced. A photo of a horse, taken in 1877, put an end to a long-standing debate about whether all four of a horse's feet lift off the ground during a gallop (yes). So the next time you pull out your smartphone to take a picture, think for a second about the centuries of innovation that allowed this picture to be born.

Phonograph

Nothing can fully repeat the experience of a live performance of your favorite band. Not long ago, live performances were the only way to listen to music. Thomas Edison changed that forever by developing a method for transcribing telegraph messages, which led him to the idea of \u200b\u200ba phonograph. The idea is simple but beautiful: a recording stylus pushes grooves corresponding to the sound waves of music or speech into a spinning tin-plated cylinder, and the other stylus reproduces the original sound based on these grooves.

Unlike Babbage and his decade-long attempts to see his designs come true, Edison commissioned his mechanic, John Cruisie, to build the car and 30 hours later got his hands on a working prototype. But Edison didn't stop there. His first pewter cylinders could play music only a few times, so Edison then replaced the tin with wax. By that time, the Edison phonograph was no longer the only one on the market, and over time, people began to abandon Edison cylinders. The main mechanism has survived and is still in use today. Not bad for a random invention.

Steam engine

How we are fascinated today by the roar of V8 engines and high-speed jet aircraftsteam technology was once incredible. It also played a huge role in supporting the industrial revolution. Before this era, people used horses and carriages to get around, and the practice of mining in mines was very laborious and ineffective.

James Watt, a Scottish engineer, did not develop a steam engine, but he managed to make more effective version such in the 1760s by adding a separate capacitor. It changed the mining industry forever.

Initially, some inventors used the steam engine to pump and remove water from mines, which gave improved access to resources. As these engines gained in popularity, engineers wondered how they could be improved. Watt's version of the steam engine did not need to be cooled after every blow that accompanied resource extraction at the time.

Others wondered: what if, instead of transporting raw materials, goods and people on a horse, a steam-powered machine was used? These thoughts inspired inventors to explore the potential of steam engines outside of the mining world. Modifications to Watt's steam engine led to other developments in the Industrial Revolution, including the first steam locomotives and steam-powered ships.

The following invention is perhaps less well known, but is of definite importance.

Conservation

Open your kitchen cabinet and you will definitely find at least one useful invention of the industrial revolution. The same period that gave us the steam engine changed the way we store food.

After the UK spread to other parts of the world, inventions began to fuel the Industrial Revolution at a constant rate. For example, such an incident happened with a French chef and innovator named Nicolas Apper. Looking for ways to preserve food without losing flavor and freshness, Apper regularly experimented with storing food in containers. In the end, he came to the conclusion that storing food, coupled with drying or salt, does not lead to an improvement in taste, but quite the opposite.

Upper thought that storing food in containers would be especially beneficial for malnourished sailors at sea. The Frenchman worked on a boiling technique, which involved placing food in a jar, sealing, and then boiling in water to create a vacuum seal. Upper achieved his goal by developing a dedicated canning autoclave in the early 1800s. The basic concept has survived to this day.

Telegraph

Before the advent of smartphones and laptops, people still continued to use the telegraph technology of the Industrial Revolution — albeit much less so than before.

Through the electrical system of networks, the telegraph could transmit messages from one place to another over long distances. The recipient of the message had to interpret the markings produced by the machine using Morse code.

The first message was sent in 1844 by Samuel Morse, the inventor of the telegraph, and it accurately conveys his excitement. He narrated "What is the Lord doing?" with his new system, hinting that he found something big. And so it was. The Morse telegraph allowed people to communicate almost instantly over great distances.

The information transmitted via telegraph lines has also greatly contributed to the development of the media and allowed governments to exchange information faster. The development of the telegraph even spawned the first news service, the Associated Press. In the end, Morse's invention connected America to Europe - and that was very important at the time.

Spinning wheel "Jenny"

Whether it's socks or anything fashionable, it's achievements textile industry the industrial revolution made these things possible for the masses.

The Jenny Spinning Wheel, or Hargreaves Spinning Machine, contributed greatly to the development of this process. After the raw materials - cotton or wool - are collected, they need to be made into yarn, and this work is often very painstaking for people.

James Hargreaves resolved this issue. Taking up the challenge of the British Royal Society of Arts, Hargreaves designed a device that far exceeded the competition's requirements to weave at least six yarns at a time. Hargreaves built a machine that produced eight streams at a time, which dramatically increased the efficiency of this activity.

The device consisted of a spinning wheel that controlled the flow of material. At one end of the device there was a rotating material, and at the other, the threads were gathered into yarns from under the hand wheel.

Roads and mines

Building the infrastructure to support the industrial revolution was not easy. The demand for metals, including iron, has spurred the industry to come up with more effective methods extraction and transportation of raw materials.

For several decades, iron companies have supplied large quantities of iron to factories and manufacturing companies. To get cheap metal mining companies supplied more cast iron than wrought iron. In addition, people began to use metallurgy or simply research physical properties materials in an industrial environment.

The massive mining of iron allowed other inventions of the Industrial Revolution to be mechanized. Without the metallurgical industry, railways and steam locomotives would not have developed, and there could have been a stagnation in the development of transport and other industries.

Jul 31, 2017 Gennady

(industrial revolution) - revolutionary changes in the tools and in the organization of production, which led to the transition from pre-industrial to industrial society. England in the late 18th and early 19th centuries is considered the classic and earliest example of the industrial revolution.

Modern historical and economic science distinguishes three major qualitative leaps in the history of mankind - three revolutions in the productive forces of society and in the structures of society itself. The Neolithic Revolution created a productive economy; the industrial revolution led to the transition from an agrarian to an industrial society; the ongoing scientific and technological revolution is leading to the transition from an industrial to a service society. All these processes took place asynchronously in different countries and regions, however, were global.

The term "industrial revolution" (or "industrial revolution") emphasizes the rapid and explosive nature of the changes that took place at the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries. first in England, and then in other countries of European civilization. This concept was first used in the 1830s by the French economist Adolphe Blanqui. Since the 1840s, it has become widely used by Marxists: in the first volume Capital Karl Marx gave a detailed analysis of the revolutionary changes in the means of production, which became the foundation of the capitalist system. Among non-Marxist historians, the concept of "industrial revolution" received universal recognition at the end of the 19th century. under the influence Lectures on the Industrial Revolution famous English historian Arnold Toynbee.

Along with a narrow interpretation of the industrial revolution as an event associated only with the genesis of capitalism, wider interpretations are also widespread among social scientists, when any profound qualitative shifts in the industrial sphere are called the industrial revolution. Proponents of this approach distinguish not one industrial revolution, but three (Table 1) or even more. However, this broader interpretation is not generally accepted.

Among social scientists, discussions continue today about what exactly should be considered the main content of the industrial revolution of the 18th and 19th centuries. The most important changes in the era of the industrial revolution are called:

the appearance is fundamentally new tools - machines (i.e. mechanization of production);

formation a new type of economic growth - transition from slow and unstable to high self-sustaining growth;

completion of formation new social structure - the transformation of entrepreneurs and employees into the main social classes.

The industrial revolution as the mechanization of production. In the course of the industrial revolution, a new element of the productive forces of society appears - a machine, which consists of three main parts: a machine-engine, a transmission mechanism and a working machine. The most important of them are working machinewhich processes the material of labor, replacing the "skillful hands" of the worker, and enginegiving the working machine an energy far exceeding human strength. It is depending on how the formation of these mechanical devices took place that three stages of the industrial revolution are distinguished:

1st stage - the emergence of working machines (initially in the textile industry, and then in other industries);

2nd stage - invention of the steam engine as an engine for working machines;

3rd stage - creation of working machines for the production of other working machines.

The invention of working machines. In the era of modern times, clothing became the first industrial consumer goods. Therefore, the industrial revolution began in the weaving industry. The first center of the industrial revolution was England - a country that back in the 16th and 17th centuries. was the main center of sheep breeding in Europe, whose wool was used to make fabrics used not only in England itself, but also exported abroad.

The industrial revolution began with the invention in 1764-1765 by the English weaver James Hargreaves of the mechanical spinning wheel, which he named after his daughter Jenny. This spinning wheel dramatically (approximately 20 times) increased the productivity of the spinner. Despite the resistance of the guilty weavers fearing competition, within a few years "Jenny" began to be used by spinners in England almost everywhere.

The efficiency of Jenny's spinning wheel was limited by the fact that it used the muscular strength of the weaver. The next important step was taken in 1769 by the barber Richard Arkwright, who patented a continuous spinning machine designed for a water drive. Finally, in 1775, weaver Samuel Crompton constructed a spinning mule machine that produced high-quality fabric. If "Jenny" produced a thin but weak thread, and Arkwright's water machine - strong but coarse, then Crompton's mule machine produced both strong and thin yarn. After these inventions, the textile industry in England set itself apart from competition, supplying fabrics to all the developed countries of the world.

Machine production originally arose on a craft basis - machines were made by hand and set in motion by the power of the worker. However, then, during the Industrial Revolution, engines for machines emerged and the production of machines by machines began.

The invention of the engine for cars. The first motors used to power working machines used the power of the water wheel known in antiquity. However, such engines could only be used near rivers. The rapid development of machine manufacturing required the invention of universal motors that could be used anywhere.

If the working machines come from the weaving industry, then the machine motors come from the mining industry.

Pumping water has always been one of the main problems in the operation of mining mines. Back in 1711, Thomas Newcomen invented the cylinder-piston steam pump. Since Newcomen's cars had an uneven course, they often broke down.

In 1763, James Watt, a laboratory assistant at the University of Glasgow, began work on improving the Newcomen machine. Having understood the shortcomings of the traditional model, Watt developed a project for a fundamentally new machine. In 1769, concurrently with the invention of the Arkwright spinning machine, Watt took out a patent for his steam engine, but it took many more efforts to refine it for widespread practical implementation. Only in 1775 at the plant in Birmingham was the production of steam engines started, and only ten years later this production began to give tangible profits. Finally, in 1784, Watt patented the double-acting steam engine that became the symbol of the "age of steam".

The invention of a new engine not only accelerated the development of old industries (for example, textiles), but also caused the emergence of fundamentally new ones. In particular, there was a revolution in the organization of transport. Creation and distribution of mechanical vehicle economic historians call transport revolution.

Already in 1802, the American Robert Fulton built a prototype boat with a steam engine in Paris. Back in America, Fulton built the world's first steamboat, the Claremont. It is characteristic that the car for this steamer was manufactured at the Watt plant. In 1807 "Claremont" made the first voyage on the Hudson. At first, not a single daredevil was found who would want to become a passenger on a new ship. However, four years later, Fulton founded the world's first steamship company, and ten years later in America and England, the number of steamers was already measured in the hundreds. The first regular transatlantic steamship line began operating in the 1830s.

Simultaneously with the invention of steamships, attempts were made to create a steam carriage. In 1815, George Stephenson, a self-taught English mechanic, built his first steam locomotive. In 1830, he completed the construction of the first large railroad between Manchester (an industrial center) and Liverpool (a seaport from where English goods were transported around the world). The benefits of this road were so great that Stephenson was immediately offered to lead the construction of a road across England from Manchester to London. Throughout the 19th century. length of railways in developed countries grew explosively, the peak of growth fell on the 1860-1880s (Table 2).

The invention of machines for making machines. At the initial stages, the distribution of machines was limited by the fact that they had to be produced by hand, so each of them depended heavily on the ingenuity of the master, the machines of the same type were noticeably different from each other. The revolution in production was completed when the mechanization of the production of the machines themselves was carried out.

The most important discovery of mechanical engineering in the era of the industrial revolution was the invention of a lathe, on which screws could be cut and other operations performed. The English mechanic Henry Maudsley played the main role in this discovery. In 1798-1800 he invented a lathe with a slide, on which it became possible to cut screws and nuts very precisely. Realizing the need for universalization of technical parameters, Maudsley also became the founder of technical standardization. It is only now that it has become possible to mass produce bolts and nuts that fit together.

The mechanization of the production of machines made it possible to establish a continuous production of "killing machines" - firearms, rifles and steel cannons.

It has long been known that rifled guns shoot farther and more accurately. However, loading such a gun from a muzzle, like a smoothbore, was difficult, and to create a breech-loading rifle, it is necessary to make a rifle bolt with high accuracy. When high-precision lathes appeared, this problem was solved. In 1841, the Drese needle gun was adopted by the Prussian army; later, the rifled weapon entered other European armies. The Crimean War convincingly demonstrated the advantages of the Allied rifled weapons over the smooth-bore guns of the Russians.

Steel cannons appeared most recently. In the 1850s, the English inventor and entrepreneur Henry Bessemer invented the Bessemer converter, and in the 1860s the French engineer Emile Martin created the open-hearth furnace. After that, the industrial production of steel and steel guns began.

Mechanization of arms production has reinforced the high economic efficiency Western European countries no less high efficiency of their armies. Thanks to this, the colonial subordination of the whole world to advanced Europe was only a matter of time.

The "Patent Revolution" as a Precondition for the Industrial Revolution. Historians note that the machines themselves were not at all something completely new for Western Europe. Even in ancient times, many mechanical devices were invented, up to the use of the power of steam. In the Middle Ages, there are also many attempts to use machines in manufactories. These facts show that, in terms of the possibilities of purely technical inventions, the industrial revolution could have occurred much earlier than modern times.

The explanation for the "belated" mass introduction of technical inventions lies in the fact that it required some social innovation to be carried out first. For the introduction of machines, in particular, it was necessary first to eliminate the medieval shop systemthat prohibited competition and create a system legal protection the rights of the inventor. In the Middle Ages, however, technical inventions remained unique examples: the introduction of technology ran into opposition from guild craftsmen, who were afraid of losing their jobs, and inventors, fearing to lose income from the use of their discoveries, hid them in every possible way and often took their secret with them to the grave.

Feudal regulation created not incentives for technical innovations, but counter-incentives. There are many examples of repressions against the inventors of new technical innovations. So, in 1579 in Danzig, the mechanic who created the ribbon loom was executed. When in 1733 the English weaver John Kay invented the "flying shuttle", he was persecuted by fellow workers - his house was destroyed, and he was forced to flee to France. The last echo of the medieval fear of machines was the Luddite movement in Great Britain at the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries, when insurgent workers smashed machines that "took bread from the people."

The most important prerequisite for the invention of machines was “ patent revolution»The middle of the 18th century, when special laws were adopted in England protecting (for a number of years) the exclusive rights of the inventor to use his discovery. Invention began to bring not persecution, but income. As a result, many inventors (Arkwright, Watt, Fulton, Stephenson) were able to become big entrepreneurswho have earned a large profit from the exploitation of their discoveries. Without laws to protect intellectual property rights, invention could not be widespread.

The industrial revolution as a transition to self-sustaining growth. The era of the industrial revolution has qualitatively changed the rate of economic growth. In preindustrial societies, economic growth was unstable and low: periods of economic growth were interspersed with periods of recession, as a result of which the average rate of growth fluctuated around zero. A New Look to the era of the industrial revolution, the concept of the transition to self-sustaining growth was formulated in 1956 by the American economist Walt Rostow.

W. Rostow identified five stages of growth:

1.traditional society;

2. the period of creation of preconditions for take-off;

3. take-off (the take-off);

4. the drive to maturity;

5.the age of high mass consumption.

The criterion for identifying stages in the concept of W. Rostow was mainly technical and economic characteristics: the level of development of technology, the sectoral structure of the economy, the share of production accumulation in the national income, the structure of consumption, etc.

For the first stage, traditional society, it is characteristic that over 75% of the working-age population is engaged in food production. The national income is mainly used unproductively for consumption and not for accumulation. This society is structured hierarchically, political power owned by landowners or the central government. Economic growth rates are low and unstable.

Second stage is transitional to takeoff. During this period, important changes are being made in three non-industrial sectors of the economy - agriculture, transport and foreign trade.

Third stage, "Take-off", covers, according to W. Rostow, a relatively short period of time - only 20-30 years. At this time, the rate of capital investment is sharply increasing, the output per capita is noticeably increasing, the rapid introduction of new technology into industry begins and agriculture... Development initially encompasses a small group of industries (the "leading link") and only later spreads to the entire economy as a whole. For growth to become automatic, self-sustaining, several conditions must be met:

a sharp increase in the share of industrial investment in national income (from 5% to at least 10%);

the rapid development of one or more industrial sectors;

political victory of the supporters of economic modernization over the defenders of the traditional society.

The main idea of \u200b\u200bW. W. Rostow's concept is shown in the graph (Fig. 1), where time is plotted along the abscissa, indicating the stages identified by Rostow, and the ordinate is the average per capita income.

Traditional society is characterized by fluctuations at the same level: the average per capita income sometimes increases, then falls under the influence of the deterioration in the ratio of means of subsistence / population. In the second stage, transitional to takeoff, the situation improves somewhat: the average per capita income is growing, however, one cannot yet speak of irreversible changes. Only the take-off stage transfers the average per capita income to a qualitatively new standard of living and, most importantly, creates the preconditions for irreversible growth.

The interpretation of the industrial revolution proposed by W. Rostow suggests seeing the main thing not in new machines, but in new high growth rates. Indeed, the industrial revolution has led to a sharp acceleration in the annual growth rate of the main economic indicators (Table 3). However, with this approach, deep social, institutional changes appear as if in the shadows, and the ratio of investments and growth rates of the gross national product comes to the fore.

In the 1760-1790s in England (UK) started industrial revolution.

Causes of the Industrial Revolution

Market competition spurred the craftsmen to invent new mechanisms that would make the goods cheaper. This was especially important in the textile industry. The fashion for Indian cotton fabrics hit hard on the incomes of English weavers. Indian artisans have been making cotton fabrics for many centuries, so they were stronger and softer than European ones, their color did not fade after washing. And at the same time, the fabrics ended up in England at a price lower than the English one. The only way to compete with Indian artisans was to make production cheaper.

The beginning of the industrial revolution

Jenny's Spinning Wheel

The loom was improved in 1733. Cloth worker Kei invented a mechanical shuttle for him, which no longer needed to be thrown over the threads by hand. But the weavers were directly dependent on those who spun the threads, and here there was still unproductive manual labor, and therefore there was not enough yarn for the new looms.

Only in 1765 yearmaster James Hargreavesdesigned a spinning machine, which he named after his daughter Jenny's spinning wheel... The person working on it only needed to move the pedals and levers, and the mechanisms of the machine themselves stretched and spun several threads at once, and many times faster than hand spinning.

James Watt

Spinning Machine by Richard Arkwright

At the same time, Master Hayes built water spinning wheel, consisting of rollers driven by a water wheel. Curious that patentfor this invention (that is, a document confirming the authorship and giving the right to receive profit from its use) was received not by the creator of the machine, but by a clever businessman, a rural hairdresser Richard Arkwrightengaged in textile production.

The emergence of factories

Enterprising owners replaced the manual labor of several workers in their factories with one Jenny's spinning wheel or water spinning wheel. The workers were no longer working on the product itself (fabric), but whether they were servicing the machines that created this product. As a result, fabrics began to be made or, as they said in England, "fabricated" very quickly. New enterprises, where manual labor was replaced by machine labor, began to be called factories... This is how the industrial revolution began in England - the transition from manual labor to machine labor and from manufacture to factory.

Technical progress

The development of invention in England during the industrial revolution was named technical progress... It was a process based on the rapid improvement and complication of technology.

Watt's steam engine

For a long time, the industrial revolution was held back by the fact that people or water wheels had to set the machines in motion. Factories and manufactories had to be built only next to fast-ry rivers. Therefore, many inventors tried to find a new source of energy. It has been known since antiquity that water vapor generated by boiling water, if directed through a pipe-cylinder, is able to set in motion mechanisms. In the 18th century, the steam engine was assembled by different mechanics in different countries. However, all their creations required a lot of fuel, and the power of their action was very weak, a lot of energy was wasted. The leadership of the University in Glasgow commissioned a mechanic to modify one of these engines James WattThe master worked for many years to improve the machine. Finally in 1784he introduced people to a universal steam engine - watt's steam engine... The water in it boiled in a closed cauldron, steam entered the cylinder and pushed the piston. Without a modern lathe, Watt was able to adjust the piston to the size of the cylinder so precisely that even a small coin could not be pushed between them. Now the power of the steam was not wasted. The piston, through a special gear mechanism, could set in motion parts of the Jenny's spinning wheel, inflate bellows or rotate wheels in any part of England.

Technological progress in modern times

Puddling ovens

The next problem that had to be solved was that the machines and mechanisms of Hargreaves, Arkwright, Watt, made mainly of wood, wore out quickly at high speeds. Iron in England was very expensive, and it was mainly purchased from Sweden, Russia and other countries. Their ores were in abundance, but charcoal was needed to smelt them, and most of the forests in England had already been cut down. There was a lot of coal in the bowels of England, but medieval blast furnaces could not work on it. In 1783, after long experiments, two masters at once, independently of each other, built new - puddling (mixing) furnaces, in which the metal smelted from the ore was mixed with burning stone coal and gave good iron. Material from the site

Henry Maudsley machine

Now the old methods of metal processing stood in the way of the industrial revolution. Working at the machine, the turner held the cutter in his hands, bringing it to the rotating part. Naturally, with this method, for example, it was very difficult for James Watt to adjust the dimensions of the piston and cylinder. Making the same screws and nuts is simply impossible. At the end of the 1890s, a young mechanic, Henry Maudsley, invented a movable support - a tool holder for a lathe. He firmly clamped the cutter, and the turner could move it to the workpiece at any distance, at any angle with special wheels. Maudsley was the first to use his invention to create standard parts - screws and nuts with the same thread that could be used to assemble different machines and mechanisms. Now man could make others with the help of some machines.

Consequences of the industrial revolution (industrialization)

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Questions about this material:

Task 15. Using the text of § 22 of the textbook, draw up a table "The most important inventions during the industrial revolution."

Task 16. Choose the correct answer.

For the implementation of the industrial revolution in England, the following conditions were required:
a) free people deprived of property; b) availability of free money in the hands of rich people; c) the existence of parliament; d) a two-party political system; e) market for goods.

Task 17. Explain concepts.

Agrarian revolution - a process characterized by the concentration of land in the hands of large owners, the use of hired labor and the disappearance of the peasantry and the growth of agricultural productivity.
Industrial revolution - transition from manual labor to machine labor, from manufacture to factory.
Luddism - spontaneous movement of destroyers of machines at the beginning of the XIX century. in England.

Task 18. What do you think gave rise to a Vermont farmer to write in the middle of the 18th century? to their relatives in England:

“I settled on this God-chosen and free land two and a half years ago and since then I have never paid for the pleasure of living in this world. Yes, and my hat during this time has never broken for a bow before any kind of master ”?
Write your answer.

The English colonies in North America were originally formed as a community of equal free people, deprived of class privileges and religious persecution. In addition, there was a lot of free land and there was no need to buy or rent it, as in my native England.

Task 19. Fill the gaps.

Benjamin Franklin is famous as a politician, American philosopher, scientist, economist.
From the age of seventeen he began an independent life "A person who owes everything to himself."
Franklin tried many specialties, and then left for England and worked there a printer. Returning to America, he settled in Philadelphia, where he opened a stationery shop that sold books as well. Franklin then organizes the first public library , founds Academywhich laid the foundation for University of Pennsylvania , and finally publishes a newspaper. Then he begins to seriously engage in politics. With him active participation American colonies separated from England. Franklin was the American ambassador to France. His last beautiful act was the signing of a petition to ban slavery.

Task 20. Choose the correct answer.

The formation of the North American nation was facilitated by:
a) the folding of a single internal market; b) common historical destiny; c) common language (English); d) loyalty to the English parliament; e) one religion; f) striving to strengthen the monarchical form of government.
A detachment of American colonists won the first victory over British troops in 1775 near the city:
a) Boston; b) New York; c) Philadelphia; d) Concorde;e) Lexington.

Task 21. Mark with a "+" or "-" if you agree with these statements.

The reasons for the War of Independence of the British colonies in North America were:
1) the prohibition of the English king and parliament to conduct maritime trade on ships belonging to the colonists;
2) the desire of the English king to strengthen the influence of the Catholic Church in the colonies;
3) the prohibition of the British Parliament to establish in the colonies manufactories producing iron products;
4) the obstacle of the British Parliament to emigration to North America;
5) a royal decree prohibiting colonists from moving to the West, beyond the Allegheny Mountains;
6) the prohibition of the British Parliament on the publication by the inhabitants of the colonies of their newspapers and magazines;
7) the prohibition of the British Parliament on the production of fabrics in colonies;
8) introduction of stamp duty by the metropolis;
9) the residents of the colonies do not have their representation in the English parliament;
10) the desire of the inhabitants of the colonies for freedom and equality.

Industrialization has fundamentally changed the world. New energy sources made it possible to carry out mechanization; communications and vehicles were developed.

Reasons for industrialization

Many factors contributed to the accelerated development of industrialization in 19th century Europe. The development of large empires, especially the British Empire, created powerful trade opportunities in Europe. Growing export markets contributed to the increase in labor productivity, and modern factories were gradually built. Industrial development in Great Britain was accelerated by the significant expansion of the empire in the 18th century. By the late 18th and early 19th centuries, states such as Belgium and Germany also began to create industrial production... Industrialization captured more and more areas, from England to Northern and Western Europe, later it crossed the Atlantic and reached the east coast of the United States.

This process was facilitated by the intensive development of natural sciences and technology. Probably one of the most important inventions of the time was the use of the power of steam that propelled machines in factories. Coal was needed to generate steam, and some of the strongest industrial regions in Europe were located close to vast coal deposits. Great Britain and benefited from coal mines in South Wales, Midland and Northern England. In Germany coal industry was developed, first of all, with its deep coal seams, stretching widely to the north.

In addition, industrial regions have benefited from proximity to major transport and trade routes such as rivers, canals or the sea. For example, in France, the Moselle and Marne rivers were ideal for transporting coal, and Marseille, located in Provence, opened up access to the Mediterranean Sea.

First photograph of the site (circa 1850) where it was later built big City Salt Lake City. Left: An 1883 engraving depicts a worker (and foreman) in an English cotton mill.

The advantage of Great Britain was that on a relatively narrow island, all cities were located close to the sea. In addition, the network of waterways, consisting of rivers and canals, provided an easy route for transporting finished products... The rivers of Northern Germany and Belgium were of the same importance. Along with a convenient geographic location, the provision of labor forcethat was used in factories.

The years-long privatization of communal lands has forced many of the UK's rural population to travel to the cities in search of work. On the European continent, the flight from villages to big cities began a little later. Major port cities such as Liverpool, Marseille, Hamburg and Rotterdam quickly developed into large industrial centers.

Impact of industrialization

The rise of an industrial society completely changed the world. At the beginning of the 20th century, countries with a high degree of industrialization were not only economically, but also politically strong states. The dominant nations of Germany, France, Great Britain, Japan and the United States relied on the developed economies of their countries. Industrialization, combined with the capitalist structure of the economy, has created an extremely effective and productive instrument for supporting and financing the state. In the course of the twentieth century, market-oriented capitalist democracies developed into the richest countries in the world.

In the 19th century, the direct impact of the industrial revolution did not always have positive consequences. Due to urbanization of cities and the influx of the poor, many have felt the deterioration of living conditions. Hunger and disease appeared. The distance between factory owners (capitalists), who wanted to reduce costs as much as possible in order to profit, and low-paid and oppressed workers (proletariat) gave rise to class conflicts. Poor living conditions throughout 19th century Europe influenced philosophers such as Karl Marx, who published the Communist Manifesto in 1848. Industrialization has brought about not only social, but also political changes. The emergence of communism as opposition to capitalism has led to fundamental changes in some countries. Particularly indicative was the coup in Russia - the Great October Revolution.

English physicist Michael Faraday, who discovered electromagnetism and thereby laid the foundations of the dynamo and electric generator.

Steam engine

Steam engines contributed greatly to industrialization as they generated power to drive pumps, locomotives, and steamers.

The steam generated in the machine under pressure enters the turbine or piston and sets them in motion. This movement is transmitted to the wheels of the car. Although the date of this invention is believed to be 1698, many modifications were required before the steamboat was first equipped with a steam engine in 1802. We owe the improvement of the steam engine to the Scotsman James Watt. Watt was born in 1732 and devoted his whole life to improving the steam engine, as a result of which, during the era of the industrial revolution, it began to be used as a source of energy and drive. Watt invented a separate chamber to condense the steam and thereby increased the efficiency of the machine. The barometer, centrifugal regulator and flywheel are also his inventions. One of the steam engines built by Watt was installed on the first experimental steamboat, the Claremont, built in 1807 on the Hudson.

Railway

The creation of railways with steam locomotives was a significant contribution to industrialization. Simple views railways functioned in Great Britain as early as the 19th century. On a primitive track of stone and iron, horses dragged trolleys into quarries and mines. The steam engine has revolutionized the situation. Miner Richard Trevithick of Cornwell in 1804 docked a steam engine and a tipper truck. Inspired by this result, George Stephenson created the first working steam locomotive that could pull wagons. The first railroad, opened in 1830 between London and Liverpool, made a splash in the construction of railways. Finally, the British state intervened and in 1850 standardized the track, which by then had up to ten widths. This is how Britain became the first country to have a well-functioning national rail network at its disposal. Railways were now being built everywhere in Europe, connecting distant regions and facilitating the integration of the economy.

Textile industry

Factories equipped with machines, steel production centers national industry. In parallel with the increase in the mechanization of production processes and the rapid growth of labor productivity, gigantic factories arose everywhere in Europe, equipped with machines and served by countless workers. Revolutionary advances in the development of textile production were achieved with the use of the first spinning machine, powered by water, invented by Arkwright in 1769, and the invention of a steam-powered mechanical loom, the author of which was Cartwright in 1792. In America, Eli Whitney developed a gin separator in 1793 to automatically separate cotton fiber from seed. The related increase in the volume of raw cotton produced has led to a drop in prices and an increase in demand. IN mid XIX For centuries, America produced three-quarters of the world's total cotton fabrics. Large quantities of this product came from the southern states and further to England and New England for further processing. The factories produced not only cheap clothes, but also dishes, glass goods, watches - everything that was the subject of demand.

Telegraph

A thriving economy depended on communications, and postal systems emerged throughout Europe in the 19th century. Around 1875, the Universal Postal Union was organized to carry out postal correspondence with other countries. However, it was only with the creation of the telegraph that it became possible to carry out direct and instant communication with remote objects. In 1837, the electric telegraph was first tested in London, and in 1838 Samuel Morse patented the telegraph he invented in America.

After the successful laying of the first submarine cable between North America and Europe in 1866, transatlantic telephony became possible.

Electricity

In 1831, Michael Faraday demonstrated the effect of converting electrical energy into mechanical energy. The electromagnetism he discovered served as the basis for the development of a dynamo and an electric generator. In 1837, he created a dynamo with increased electrical power, and technology, which at first was almost inaccessible and very expensive, gradually gained popularity. Until the beginning of the 20th century, people learned to generate relatively cheap electricity only from the energy of the movement of water. In the mountainous regions of Italy, where coal was not available, most factories ran on electricity generated by generators powered by the movement of water. The first electric trams were put into operation in Florence in 1890. In the 30s of the XX century, almost all of Europe was electrified, and states such as Russia, in which in the XIX century the development of industrialization was rather slower than accelerated pace, began to develop rapidly.

Factory workshop of one of the Krupp steel factories in Essen, the largest weapons forges in the German Empire.

Weapon

Firearms began to be created in the 16th century, and their role gradually increased. The technological innovations of the 19th century resulted in a rapid change in military weapons. The invention of the machine gun led to subsequent changes in the production of weapons. In 1862, the Gatling gun was invented, which quickly fired balls and was the first firearm with automatic reloading. For the first time such weapons found use in the American Civil War and later began to be used in the US Navy. Made in France, mitrailleuses consisted of 37 rifle barrels tied in bundles. In 1883, in the Maxim machine gun, invented by an American, for the first time the recoil energy after a shot was used to reload cartridges, which made it possible to produce a whole series of shots. One of the greatest inventors of weapons is considered Alfred Krupp from Essen, who turned a small family business into the largest and most successful manufacturing enterprise Europe. When Krupp took over the firm, it employed five employees. After his death in 1887, the production already employed 20 thousand people - proof of the huge need for weapons in the 19th century.