Types of organizational configurations. Types of computer communication configurations Configuration type

Configurations as a combination of structural elements and situational factors. Six trends in the development of the organization.

Classification criteria: key coordination mechanisms, key components, design parameters, situational factors.

Mechanistic and organic organizational systems. Six configurations. Simple structure. Direct control. Machine bureaucracy. Professional bureaucracy. Divisional form. Adhocracy. Missionary organizations.

DESIGN AS A CONFIGURATION

From the first pages of the book, from your acquaintance with the five coordination mechanisms, you could observe the increasing coincidence of our conclusions. For example, described in Ch. 1, standardization of work processes is closely related to the display of an organization as a system of regulated flows.

Both of these aspects, as we saw in Ch. 2, merge, in particular, with such a project parameter as the formalization of behavior, and in general - with the traditional understanding of a bureaucratic organization, in which operational activities are highly specialized but unskilled. In the next chapter, we discovered that these structures are characterized by large operating units, usually grouped according to functional characteristics (like the higher midline divisions).

In ch. 5, we came to the conclusion that decentralization in these structures, as a rule, is limited and carried out horizontally, and power belongs primarily to the strategic apex and, secondly, to the technostructure that formalizes the activities of all other parts. Finally, in the previous chapter, we talked about the fact that this combination of parameters is most likely to manifest itself in large and mature organizations, in particular in the second stage of organizational development; in organizations using technical systems of mass production; in organizations operating in a simple, stable external environment; as well as in organizations subject to external control. In the book, we also find a coincidence of other data. Essentially, the elements of our research - coordination mechanisms, design parameters, and situational factors - naturally break down into several clusters, or configurations.

It should be recalled that we made two hypotheses in the previous chapter about effective organizational structuring. The subject of Ch. 6 was the consistency hypothesis, postulating that effective organizations choose the appropriate situations in which they operate design parameters. We now turn to the configuration hypothesis, according to which effective organizations achieve internal consistency in their design parameters, as well as their compatibility with situational factors - that is, they build a certain configuration. It is the configurations that emerge in the coincidences of this book.

How many configurations are needed to describe all organizations? A mathematician would say that R elements, each of which can take P forms, will give p n possible combinations. Given the variety of design parameters, there may be even more. And yet we could start building a complex matrix by trying to fill in each of its quadrants. But the world is not a matrix. There is order in it, but much more complex is the spirit of fusion or harmony that arises from the natural grouping of elements, be it stars, ants, or characteristics of organizations.

In our discussion, the number “five” has been mentioned more than once: five basic coordination mechanisms, five main parts of an organization, five types of decentralization. Five, of course, is not an ordinary number. The Pythagoreans considered it a symbol of unity, the number of marriage, as well as the number of center, harmony and balance. IN Dictionary of symbols we read that "five" is "a symbol of man ... as well as the universe ... a symbol of the divine will, which strives solely for order and perfection." For ancient authors, the number "five" was the essence of universal laws: "five colors, five tastes, five tones, five metals, five internal organs, five planets, five eastern lands, five spheres of space and, of course, five senses", not to mention about the "five colors of the rainbow". Our modest contribution to this impressive list is five configurations of structure and situation. They have appeared repeatedly in this book; these are the configurations that are most often described in the literature. one

The return to the number "five" in our discussion, apparently, is not accidental, because it turns out that between all our fives there is a one-to-one correspondence. In each configuration, one of the five coordination mechanisms dominates, without repeating itself, different parts of the organization play an important role, different types of decentralization are used. 2 This correspondence can be summarized in the following table:

Structural configuration

Main coordination mechanism

A key part of the organization

Decentralization type

Simple structure

Direct control

Strategic apex

Vertical and horizontal centralization

Mechanistic bureaucracy

Workflow standardization

Technostructure

Limited horizontal decentralization

Professional bureaucracy

Standardization of skills and knowledge

(qualifications)

Operating core

Vertical and horizontal decentralization

Divisional form

Standardization

Middle dynia

Limited vertical decentralization

Adhocracy

Mutual agreement

Support staff

Electoral decentralization

* From Ch. 12 you will learn that there are two main types of adhocracy. In the second, which resembles a professional bureaucracy, the operational core is a key part.

We can explain this correspondence by considering an organization as a structure in which five different aspirations of each of its parts are fighting. (These five forces are depicted in Figure 7.1). Most organizations are influenced by all five forces; however, to the extent that circumstances favor one of them, the organization tends to a certain configuration.

So, the strategic apex seeks to centralize, thanks to which it is able to maintain control over decision making. This becomes possible when direct control is used to coordinate activities. If the appropriate conditions exist, a configuration called simple structure.

    Technostructure is fighting for standardization - namely, for its most rigid form, standardization of work processes. The point is that standards development is the raison d'être of its existence. This aspiration is tantamount to a desire for limited horizontal decentralization. If conditions are favorable for this aspiration, the organization is structured as mechanistic bureaucracy.

    For their part, the core operations team strives to minimize the influence of administrators - managers and analysts - on their operations. That is, they support horizontal and vertical decentralization.

Having succeeded in this, they operate relatively autonomously, achieving the necessary coordination through the standardization of qualifications. In this way, operators advocate professionalism - that is, the use of training skills that enhance their use outside the organization. If conditions are conducive to this, the organization is structured as professional bureaucracy.

Figure: 7.1. Five forces driving the organization

coordinate interactions within or between groups through mutual agreement. If the conditions are conducive to this desire for collaboration, the organization takes the form adhocracy (see Ch. 12.).

Consider, for example, the activities of a film company. The figure of a strong director promotes centralization of the organization and the use of a simple structure. But if there were several strong directors in it, then each would fight for their autonomy, and the structure, perhaps, would be divided and take on a divisional form. If, instead, the company hired highly skilled actors and cameramen, it would have an incentive to further decentralize and use the structure of a professional bureaucracy by producing sophisticated but fairly standard films. However, if a company hires relatively unskilled workers, for example, to mass-produce cheap action fighters, it has a strong urge to standardize and structure a mechanistic bureaucracy. But if it strives for the avant-garde, which will require the combined efforts of the director, artists, actors and cameramen, then the company will be incentivized to use the configuration of adhocracy.

The five configurations are the subject of the rest of the chapters in the book. Sketching "portraits" of each configuration in the next ones, we pursue two goals. First, we seek to propose some fundamental way to classify organizations - and all the matches we found generally speak in favor of this possibility. Second, it makes it possible to use material from the first six chapters in them. Configuration descriptions are a great way to summarize and, more importantly, synthesize our results.

In describing configurations, we reject the assumption that situational factors are independent variables that dictate the choice of design parameters. Instead, using the "systemic" approach, we consider the configurations of situational and structural parameters as "gestalts" (German - holistic form), clusters of rigidly dependent relationships. There are no dependent or independent variables in the system; each depends on everyone else. The large size of the organization requires the bureaucratization of the structure, but also the bureaucracy tends to grow. Rapid changes in conditions may require organic structure, but organizations with organic structures also seek dynamic environments in which they feel more comfortable. Apparently, organizations - at least effective - are, if possible, ready for changes in both situational and structural parameters for the sake of maintaining the coherence of their gestalts.

In each of the next five chapters, we use the materials presented at the beginning of the book to describe one of the configurations. Each chapter begins by looking at the basic structure of a configuration: how it uses coordination mechanisms and design parameters, and how it functions (distribution of authority, material resources, information, and decision-making rights among its parts). The following is a discussion of the conditions for the existence of the configuration (age, size, technical systems, external environment, power). All our conclusions are summarized in table. 12.1. We provide well-known examples of each configuration and note some of the common hybrid structures they can form with other configurations. Finally, each chapter concludes with a discussion of some important social issues related to this configuration. This is where I use my author's right to give my own assessments in the final sections.

I would like to say one more thing. The final sections can give the impression that the five configurations are something quite definite, encompassing the entire organizational reality. Of course it is not (as you saw in Chapter 6 and as you will see in the last chapter). I ask the reader to remember that every sentence in the final paragraphs (including this one!) Is an exaggeration. Sometimes, in order to sharpen the differences and thereby better understand them, reality must be presented in a caricatured form or as a stereotype. Therefore, to make them clearer, we are exaggerating the configuration histories somewhat, but by no means suggesting that every organization — every organization — is best suited to a single configuration. Each configuration is clean type (which M. Weber called the "ideal" type), a theoretical logical combination of situational and design parameters. All five can be considered a kind of working pentagon, within which you can find real organizations. In fact, our short final chapter presents such a pentagon, within the boundaries of which there are hybrids of configurations and transitional forms. You can understand the inner space only by defining its boundaries. So let's start looking at configurations.

ribs - electrical and information links between them.

The number of possible configurations increases dramatically as the number of devices connected increases. So, if we can connect three computers in two ways, then for four computers (Fig. 4.1) we can offer six topologically different configurations (provided that computers are indistinguishable).


Figure: 4.1.

We can connect each computer to each, or we can link them in series, assuming that they will communicate, passing messages to each other "in transit". At the same time, transit nodes must be equipped with special means to allow this specific intermediary operation to be performed. In the role transit hub both a universal computer and a specialized device can act.

Many network characteristics depend on the choice of the link topology. For example, the presence of several paths between nodes increases the reliability of the network and makes it possible to balance the load of individual channels. The ease of adding new nodes, inherent in some topologies, makes the network easily expandable. Economic considerations often lead to the choice of topologies that are characterized by a minimum total length of communication lines.

Among the many possible configurations, there are fully connected and not fully connected:


Figure: 4.1.1.

Fully connected topology (Fig. 4.2) corresponds to a network in which each computer is directly connected to all others. Despite its logical simplicity, this option is cumbersome and ineffective. Indeed, each computer on the network must have a large number of communication ports, sufficient to communicate with each of the other computers. Each pair of computers must have a separate physical link. (In some cases, even two, if it is impossible to use this line for two-way transmission.) Fully connected; topologies in large networks are rarely used, since N (N-1) / 2 physical duplex communication lines are required for communication of N nodes, i.e. there is a quadratic dependence. Most often, this type of topology is used in multi-machine complexes or in networks that unite a small number of computers.


Figure: 4.2.

All other options are based on loose topologieswhen an intermediate transfer of data through other nodes on the network may be required to exchange data between two computers.

Mesh topology (mesh 1 Sometimes the term "mesh" is used to refer to fully connected or nearly fully connected topologies.) is obtained from fully connected by removing some possible connections. Mesh topology allows large numbers of computers to be connected and is typical for large networks (Figure 4.3).


Figure: 4.3.

In networks with annular configuration (Fig. 4.4), data is transferred around the ring from one computer to another. The main advantage of the "ring" is that by its nature it has the property of reserving connections. Indeed, any pair of nodes is connected here in two ways - clockwise and counterclockwise. The "ring" is a very convenient configuration for organizing feedback - the data, having made a full turn, is returned to the source node. Therefore, the sender in this case can control the process of data delivery to the addressee. Often this "ring" property is used to test network connectivity and find a node that is not working correctly. At the same time, in networks with a ring topology, it is necessary to take special measures so that in case of failure or disconnection of a station, the communication channel between the other stations of the "ring" is not interrupted.


Figure: 4.4. Ring topology.

"star" (Figure 4.5) is formed when each computer is connected with a separate cable to a common central device called hub 2 In this case, the term "hub" is used in a broad sense, it refers to any multi-input device that can serve as a central element, such as a switch or router. ... The function of the hub is to direct the information transmitted by the computer to one or all other computers on the network. A hub can be a computer or a specialized device such as a multi-way repeater, switch, or router. The disadvantages of star topology include the higher cost of network equipment associated with the need to purchase a specialized central device. In addition, the scalability of the number of nodes on the network is limited by the number of hub ports.


Figure: 4.5.Star topology.

Sometimes it makes sense to build a network using several hubs, hierarchically interconnected by links of the "star" type (Fig. 4.6). The resulting structure also called a tree. Currently, the tree is the most common type of link topology, both in local and wide area networks.


Figure: 4.6.Hierarchical star or tree topology.

When creating a computer network, it is first of all important to choose a scheme for the electrical connection of computers to the network. This circuit is called configuration,or network topology.The choice of this or that configuration significantly affects the characteristics of the network. For example, to improve the reliability of the network, you can provide backup links... And if it is necessary for the network to be easily expandable, then it is necessary to choose a topology that allows the connection of new nodes without degrading the traffic of other network subscribers.

Let's consider the basic configurations that are most often used in the construction of local networks. Until recently, the most common

the configuration was "Common bus" (fig.19.2, a). All computers on the network are connected to one coaxial cable, and information can be distributed in both directions. This is the simplest and cheapest connection scheme, but also the least reliable. Damaging a cable in one place can destroy the entire network.

In configuration "star" (Figure 14.2, b) each computer is connected with a separate cable to a common device - hub,located in the center of the network. A hub sends information from one computer to all other computers or a dedicated computer on the network. Instead of a hub, a central computer can be located inside the star. Star configuration is more reliable than "Common bus",since a damaged peripheral cable does not affect the performance of the entire network. Another plus is that the hub can block data transfers prohibited by the administrator.

With multiple hubs you can build hierarchical (" tree-like ") networks (Figure 14.2, c). The hierarchical configuration of "stars" is currently the most common in local and global networks. When building local networks of the listed configurations, the most popular network technology is Ethernet.

Another possible network configuration is “ ring"(Fig. 14.2, d). In it, each computer is connected by pieces of cable with the previous and with the previous computers, and it can exchange information only with them. Data travels around a ring, usually in one direction. how andin the "common bus" configuration, the ring connection has low reliability. However, its advantage is that it is easy to organize feedback to control the delivery of packets to addressees. Indeed, it is easy to verify the data sent by the source computer after it has gone through a complete revolution around the ring. Ring configurations use Token Ring networking technology


Figure: 14.2 Possible LAN configurations: a- "Common bus"; b - "star"; в - "tree-like"; r- "ring"

Mesh topology - basic fully connected topology computer networkin which each workstation on a network connects to all other workstations on the same network. It is characterized by high fault tolerance, configuration complexity and excess cable consumption. Each computer has many possible ways to connect to other computers. Broken cable will not result in loss of connection between the two computers.

It is obtained from fully connected by removing some possible connections. This topology allows a large number of computers to be connected and is typical, as a rule, for large networks.

Lattice- a concept from the theory of the organization of computer networks. It is a topology in which the nodes form a regular multidimensional lattice. Moreover, each edge of the lattice is parallel to its axis and connects two adjacent nodes along this axis.

Fat tree network (thickened tree) - Computer network topology invented by Charles E. Leiserson of MIT is cheap and efficient for supercomputers. Unlike classical tree topology, in which all connections between nodes are the same, connections in a thickened tree become broader (thicker, more efficient bandwidth) with each level as you approach the root of the tree. It is often used to double the bandwidth at each layer.

1C configurations on Russian market - lots of. Most of them are designed various companies franchisee 1C.

Typical 1C configurations are universal 1C configurations developed by 1C. The most common typical 1C configurations are relatively few - less than ten. Additionally, they are divided into versions - basic / professional / corporate.

Today we would like to consider a list of typical 1C configurations that a 1C programmer often encounters, their capabilities and features.

Who develops 1C configurations?

Typical configurations 1C develops 1C. The franchisee develops its own 1C production configurations, which can also be sold through the 1C network, but they are not “standard”.

Actually, each company can develop its own original 1C configuration "from scratch" and distribute it independently.

If the developed 1C configuration contains part of a typical 1C configuration or is a modification of a typical one, then for the distribution of such a 1C configuration it is required to obtain permission from 1C. To obtain such permission, you must pass the 1C: Compatible certification.

In order to certify your 1C configuration, you need to meet the requirements:

  • 1C configuration must have a user manual
  • There must be an installer
  • Automatic initial filling of the base at the first start
  • All information should be stored in one 1C information base
  • There must be an Administrator with full rights; General and Full interfaces
  • Use only managed lock mode
  • The 1C configuration must successfully pass syntax and other error checks
  • Detailed

Typical configurations 1C

By the term "technological advantages of configuration" we mean automation in the work of an employee, which allows you to perform certain things completely automatically (easily for an employee) or semi-automatically (an employee is easier), as well as those things that are very difficult or impossible to do without a program.

1c accounting

The most common typical 1C configuration is Accounting. As the name implies, this 1C configuration allows you to keep accounting according to the current Russian legislation.

Accounting subsystems:

  • Accounting
  • Tax accounting (conducted "automatically" in parallel with accounting)
  • Personnel documents and salary (in short form)
  • Regulated reporting.

Regulated reporting is a system of reports that must be submitted to state bodies... Reporting is submitted once a quarter and is updated by 1C once a quarter.

  • Desktop interface
  • Partial automation of user actions (for example, "Closing the period"
  • Processing audit of accounting and tax accounting.

Modifications 1C: Accounting

Accounting involves manual maintenance accounting for organization with subsequent semi / automatic receipt of regulated reporting.

There are modifications of this program for various narrow directions. For example, for accounting for "simplified" or for reporting. Usually these modifications have less functionality, due to which it is easier to work with them and they usually cost less.

Options:

  • Simplified - accounting of individual entrepreneurs on the simplified tax system
  • Entrepreneur - accounting for individual entrepreneurs for calculating personal income tax
  • Payment documents - preparation of invoices for printing and exchange with a client bank
  • Taxpayer - manual registration of regulated reports to the tax and Pension Fund without keeping records
  • Money - accounting for personal finances
  • Manager - formation of management reports (profit, loss, balance sheet, cash flows)
  • Budgetary reporting and Code of reports - reporting for government organizations.

Salary and HR management

This 1C configuration has two blocks of significant volume:

  • Full accounting of the personnel department (including questionnaires, formation personnel reserve etc.)
  • Calculation of wages in full (taking into account recalculations, complex vacations, decrees, northern allowances, etc.).

The words "in full" mean a hint that this is much more functionality than just personnel orders and an accrual document wages... These two blocks are connected by the fact that wages are calculated on the basis of previously entered personnel documents.

Accounting subsystems:

  • Personnel accounting of the organization (acceptance-dismissal-vacation ..)
  • Payroll (with uploading to the Accounting Department)
  • Regulated reporting (FIU and funds)
  • Functionality of the personnel department (recruitment, motivation, training, cost planning, labor protection).

      • Regulated reporting is a system of reports that must be submitted to various government funds (pension, medical).

      Configuration 1C Accounting has the following technological advantages:

      • Desktop interface
      • Payroll, taking into account all deductions, allowances and recalculations based on the entered personnel documents
      • Automation of the daily routine work of the personnel department.

      Trade management

      This 1C configuration allows you to automate the operational activities of the company, if it is not related to the production of goods. Very often, on the basis of this particular 1C configuration, improvements are made to obtain management reporting.

      Accounting subsystems:

      • Inventory control
      • Procurement
      • Marketing & Sales
      • Customer relationship
      • Operational accounting of finance
      • Prompt reporting.

      Operational reporting is the opposite of government regulated reporting. The purpose of operational reporting is to show the real state of affairs in the company at the current second (the usual assumption is one day). The usual set is goods, money, debts.

      • Registration of invoices
      • Cashier workplace
      • Printing price tags and labels
      • Maintaining a "customer base" and "history of relationships with them"
      • The ability to maintain order in the movement of goods and money.

      Retail

      In fact, it is a modified version of the Trade Management and is intended specifically for automation retail stores with different specifics. This 1C configuration is universal for any store, based on it, franchisees have developed many variations for stores in different industries.

      Accounting subsystems:

      • Warehouse
      • Sales
      • Cashier.

      Configuration of 1C Trade management has the following technological advantages:

      • Cashier workplace
      • Printing price tags and labels
      • Use of commercial equipment
      • "Sharpened" under the account in the store
      • Built-in exchange with Trade Management.

      Document flow

      In large companies, the level of bureaucracy increases. A large number of middle managers, regulations - increases the number of papers issued within the company. Also in large companies there is a large turnover of securities with external companies - suppliers, buyers that cannot be lost, ignored, which may require a response or mandatory storage for half a year, a year or more.

      In this case, the turnover of securities between offices begins to matter and must be taken into account. As a rule, a “warehouse” of papers appears for papers - an archive. Regulated chains of paper circulation from office to office appear.

      This configuration of 1C allows you to automate the accounting of paper documents and partially or completely transfer it to electronic. The 1C configuration allows you to scan incoming documents (or attach electronic documents Word and others) and then operate an electronic copy of the document in the chains of approval, approval and other things.

      Accounting subsystems:

      • Document accounting
      • Archive
      • Document chain (business processes, including agreements and approvals)
      • Automation of regulations with control over their implementation.

      Configuration of 1C Trade management has the following technological advantages:

      • Storage electronic documents (both originally electronic and scanned)
      • Setting tasks for execution (including in the form of task chains from performer to performer).

      Complex configurations 1C

      We have listed typical 1C configurations that are universal, but made to automate the "task area". Depending on the area, they allow you to automate either the accounting side of the company's life or the operational (for example, warehouse).

      There are typical 1C configurations that are automated "from the company". They are also typical and divided according to the "needs" of the companies. Since "needs" most often depend on size, they can roughly be considered as for small, medium and large companies.

      Complex configurations of 1C usually include all aspects of accounting - both accounting and operational and management, as well as "something else."

      Management of a small firm (UNF)

      Designed for the automation of medium-sized companies with production (for small ones, the modifications of the Accounting Department, which we considered earlier, are probably suitable).

      Includes:

      • Warehouse and trade management
      • Sales and retail
      • Staff and salary
      • Production
      • Planning
      • Management reports.

      At the same time, it does not include accounting (there is an upload to it).

      Integrated automation (CA)

      Designed for the automation of medium-sized companies without production.

      Includes:

      • Warehouse and trade management
      • Customer relationship
      • Sales and retail
      • Accounting department
      • Staff and salary
      • Manufacturing (simplified).

      It does not include planning and production (only in a simplified form).

      Control manufacturing enterprise (UPP)

      The main typical mega-configuration 1C, which is designed for the automation of large companies and includes "everything and a little more."

      Includes:

      • Trade management
      • Accounting department
      • Salary and personnel
      • Production
      • Planning
      • Management reporting (in a simplified form).

      Other configurations 1C

      Other 1C configurations are not intended for accounting, like all those listed earlier, but as additional opportunities in building information system companies.

      Consolidation

      It is supposed to be used in the holding. The main goal is to get results from other information bases and programs different types accounting by divisions and legal entities holding and consolidate into a single reporting.

      Includes:

      • Collection of incoming data in the form of "reports" from different databases and different programs
      • Consolidation of data from different reports into a single whole
      • Business analysis of metrics by results
      • Distribution of reports.

      Data conversion

      Instrumentation and control and its part - MCC

      MCC - Performance Control Center. Allows you to analyze performance bottlenecks in a running 1C database.

      KIP - corporate instrumental package. MCC is part of it. Additionally includes tools for database testing (including load testing).

      Library of standard subsystems 8.2

      Positioned as a developer tool. Includes ready-made universal subsystems that can be used when developing your own 1C configurations.

      Examples of such blocks:

      • Users and access control
      • 1C configuration update and backup
      • Working with files
      • Email
      • Business processes and tasks
      • Report options
      • Versioning
      • Data exchange
      • Typical classifiers (currencies, banks, organizations, individuals).

      Industry configurations 1C

      All of the above typical 1C configurations are universal. This means they can be used in any industry.

      Meanwhile, there are many industries and each of them has its own peculiarities. For example, you can trade:

      • clothes and shoes (features - colors and sizes, "perpetual" re-grading)
      • cars (features - a large selection of configuration variations)
      • sweets (tricky use of scales)
      • etc.

      During the implementation of typical 1C configurations in various industries, franchisees had to take into account such subtleties. Implementation results appear on the market as “industry” solutions.

      Industry-specific solutions can be bought on the 1C network as standard ones. Also, the franchisees who wrote them offer their industry solutions.

      There are a lot of industry solutions. Analyzing the advantages and differences between one and the other (in the same area) can take a significant amount of time.

The diversity of efforts of various objects (including military ones) determines the diversity of their power supply schemes. It is customary to distinguish between two main directions of development of power supply schemes:

1. Classical, which develops mainly in those areas where the increase in consumer load is only expected or develops simultaneously with the construction of electric power networks.

2. Forced, where the power grids have already been built and designed for a certain load and categorization, but later there is a need to either increase the capacity of the grid, or to build new taps from the existing grid, or even to change their configuration.

Such networks, as a rule, bear the names of either simple closed or complexly closed configurations of electric power networks.

The power supply schemes for consumers depend on the remoteness of energy sources, the general power supply scheme of a given area, the territorial location of consumers and their capacity, requirements for reliability, survivability, etc.

It is very difficult to choose the type and configuration of the network, because they must meet the conditions of reliability, economy, ease of use, safety and development opportunities.

The network configuration is determined by the mutual arrangement of the line elements, and the type of network depends on the degree of their reliability and survivability.

Consumers of the 1st category must be provided with electricity from two independent power sources through two separate lines. They allow an interruption in the power supply during the automatic activation of the backup power source.

For consumers of category 2, in most cases, power is also provided on two separate lines, or on a double-circuit line. Since the emergency repair of overhead lines is short-lived, the rules allow for the supply of electricity to consumers of category 2 and one line.

For category 3 consumers, one line is sufficient. In this regard, non-redundant and redundant schemes are used.

Not redundant - no redundant lines and transformers. These include radial circuits (Fig. 1., a), supplying consumers of 3 categories (sometimes 2 categories). Redundant circuits supply consumers of categories 1 and 2. These include ring (Fig. 1., b), with two-way power supply (Fig. 1., d) and complexly closed with nodal points I, II, III, IV (Fig. 1., e).

Figure: 1. Configurations of electric power networks: Substation - substation; A1 and A2 - supply nodes (stations or substations) a) - radial configuration; b) - ring configuration; c - single-circuit c) double-sided power supply; d) - double-circuit trunk configuration; e) - a complex closed configuration.

In some cases, the construction of lines in redundant lines is carried out in two stages. One line is being built, and only when the load increases to the design one, the second is built. Mixed configurations of power transmission lines can also be used - redundant together with non-redundant ones.

Graphically, electrical networks are represented in the form of schematic diagrams, in which all elements are depicted with conventional signs, interconnected in the same sequence as in reality.

Schematic diagrams electrical networks usually compiled in the most visual form so that all power circuits can be easily traced. At the same time, the relative position of the TP and RP on the diagram, the shape and length of the power transmission line may not correspond to the scale and their true location on the ground, and switching devices, measuring instruments and protection means on these circuits may be absent.

In fig. 2. shows an approximate diagram of the electrical network. In it, overhead transmission lines 1 ... 3 with a voltage of 110 kV with transformer substations 1 ... 4 connect the power plants ES1 and ES2 with each other and with the power centers TsP1 and TsP2. The remaining overhead and cable lines with a voltage of 35 kV and below, connected to the power centers, distribute electricity between the facilities.

Fig. 2. Electrical network diagram

Symbols are used on the schematic diagrams of the electrical network.

Individual sections of the electrical network, in which the transmission and distribution of electrical energy are carried out at the same voltage, are depicted in the form of simplified diagrams. On them, the beginning of the network from the side of the power source is indicated by a circle, electrical receivers - by arrows, implying the direction of energy transfer, and distribution points - by nodal points (Fig. 3.).

Figure: 3. Design diagram of the electric power section

On the plans, individual elements of the electrical network are designated in accordance with GOST 2. 754-72.

I. I. Meshcheryakov