Management of mental models. Basic concepts of institutional economics Influence of mental models on human behavior

"This is a very influential person ..."
"I don’t know how it happened, that I did it, apparently he influenced me ..."
"I can't do anything, apparently I lack influence ..."

Remember how often we hear such phrases.

Let's see what is behind this frequently used term. And to start with the basics, let's go by contradiction. When does the loss of influence occur? When do you feel that you cannot or cannot influence the person or the situation as a whole?

Let's remember the anecdote:

“A customer rushes into the balloon store and asks to inflate all the balloons. The seller, surprised, fulfills the request. The man buys all the balls and leaves the store satisfied. But an hour later he comes back and says that he returns all the balls, since the goods are defective. "How so? !!" - the seller is surprised. “They don't please me anymore,” the buyer answers.

Very often, the loss of influence is associated with the loss of meaning. Awareness of the meaning of activity stands on three pillars:

A person's awareness of his goal. The ability to realize and correctly formulate your own goals implies the development of certain skills of working with your own consciousness.
Understanding of the characteristics of the environment in which the set goal would be achieved.
Technologies of directed development of human resources to achieve this goal.

Influence begins with the ability to unite a group of people around oneself, one's idea.

Three ways to bring the community together.

Power - the presentation of requirements for a person's life in society, provided with the possibility of using force and encouraged by ideology.
If you add influence to power, then there is the legitimacy of power, the leadership of trust.
Remove influence from power, either tyranny or oligarchy will immediately form.
Control - this is the definition of the rules of conduct for a professional group, regulations for achieving the goals of the organization, which is supported by positive and negative motivation, up to the possibility of exclusion from the professional group. Those. in other words, management is a combination of the goals of the organization and its employees.
If influence appears in management, then we are faced with the management of authority, leadership, charisma.
If you remove influence from management, bureaucratization, conjuncture wars, political games, the so-called "Italian strikes" appear.
Influence - This is the process of correcting a person's consciousness or his actions exclusively by psychological means. Those. influence does not have the resources and tools of power and management, it has only human resources and the ability to achieve its goal.

Influence and impact

When we start talking about influence, we are faced with the first problem. The problem of separating influence and impact.

Impact is a process. The process when people try to achieve their goals through some of their actions.

Influence is the result. This is the result of these actions, a real change in the consciousness of another person.

And sadly, most leaders are about influence, not influence. They sincerely believe that what they do changes the consciousness and motives for the action of another person.

By what mechanism is the influence carried out? Remember exactly how a person gets infected with the virus. For. To enter a cell (a rather complex system containing several layers to protect against negative factors), the virus does not fight against the cell, but simply attaches itself to it. I don't want to draw direct parallels, but the same mechanism is sewn up in influence. The protective shell of a person is his values. Each of us has values. Information that does not correspond to our values \u200b\u200bdoes not lie down for perception, a person subconsciously rejects it and fights with it. On the other hand, if the information falls on the mental matrix of a person, then it begins to be absorbed and processed. By the mental matrix we mean: the values \u200b\u200bof a person and his psycho-emotional state.

When we start communicating with a person in a mode of influence, the first thing we start with is adherence to values. Let's look at an example.

If your interlocutor starts a dialogue like this: "I do not completely agree with you and now I will explain in a few words why this is not so." Even if he continues to talk about logical and easily proven facts, there will be resistance, confrontation. Since at the subconscious level it has already been grasped that this person opposes his position to ours, He does not agree with us, He argues with us, and here other rules of the game come and we no longer care about the meaning that He conveys in his message.

Let's change the rules of contact with you. For example, you hear: "What do you think, should a successful businessman take care of his subordinates?" Or "Should a modern woman serve as a source of inspiration for her man?" “If you and I are sitting at the same negotiating table, then we have common interests. Let's focus our efforts on finding these interests, and not on ... "

Notice all these approaches are consistent with the theory of influence. First, join what is valuable for a person, with which it is easier for a person to agree, and then begin to develop your thought.

Based on what has been said, let me introduce first rule of influence (it can be designated as the puzzle of the impact):

1. Influence begins with value attachment.In order for your actions to develop into influence They must lie on the interlocutor's mental matrix.

Second rule of influence:

2. The calculated impact is blocked and does not turn into influence. If we have realized what they want to do against us, have realized the direction in which they are trying to lead us, then we are already indirectly protected from this. Very often, professional and non-professional characteristics and reactions of a person caught in new situation... Especially if the situation is stressful. The beginner twitches, the Professional freezes, first trying to determine the rules of the game.

Influence models

Model of influence (type of influence) - the style of actions and behavior of a person, aimed at changing the consciousness of the interlocutor.

There are only four models of influence:

Power
Manipulative
Business
Ideological

Each of these models has its own tools, specific techniques and technologies of action.

Each person has their own personal predisposition to use the tools of a particular model.

Power model

The basic principle of this model is “They do not agree with the weak, they dictate conditions to the weak.” When we communicate in the mode of this model, we use such methods of influence as our status, our experience, our connections. In this case, however, it is necessary to separate the forceful influence and forceful influence. Their main difference is the right of the interlocutor to independently make a decision; under the influence of such a right there is no.

Manipulative model

The basic principle of this model is “Don't waste your energy to defeat your opponent. Sincerely win him to play. " The main method of influence here is not to demonstrate your true intentions; you need to say one thing, mean another. This type of influence only works if the manipulation was not immediately disclosed.

Business model

The basic principle of this model is “Reasonable people can always agree”. This model implies a step-by-step coordination of interests. Among the methods of this model of influence: previous agreements, business ethics, clauses of contracts.

Ideological model

The basic principle of this model is “We are together, we can do it”. This type of influence is characterized by a call for common basic values, a powerful emotional infection of the interlocutor.

The third rule of influence:

3. The amount of human influence is determined by the skill of using all models, i.e. when solving a situation that has arisen, a person should be free to choose the tools of various models of influence.

The fourth rule of influence:

4. The degree of human influence is determined by the speed of changing different instruments.

Think about which of the models of influence are the most energetically strong? Power and ideological... Because it is behind these models that a person's personality stands. Here the winner is the one who is more energetic, who is more attuned to such a power resource. Therefore, all control interceptions are most often based on the tools of either a power or ideological model.

Which model is the most secure? Manipulative... Since the manipulator cannot be re-educated, it can only be replayed. The manipulator, until the moment when HE begins or is internally ready to negotiate, first answers to himself the question: "What class is the player against me?" If the manipulator sees that this is a person who can replay him on his own playing field, then there is an opportunity for an agreement. If this is not the case, then the manipulator remains in its position.

Business model - the most synergistic. It provides an opportunity for development without looking back - is there someone with a dagger with the desire to poke from the back. But at the same time, sadly, she is the most vulnerable. The tools of influence of this model are the weakest of all models. They are the most strategically effective, but They are also the most vulnerable.

Therefore, if you want to uphold a system of normal, correct, civilized, business interaction, you first need to show that you are capable of working with the tools of all other models. When you become protected, then you can negotiate with you.

Fifth rule of influence:

5. An ineffective, non-working model of influence should change instantly... What are most people doing? Once they encounter increased resistance, they try to strengthen the tools of the model they are using. “Come on, let me start even louder, let me try to push the situation, they resist, so you need to increase the pressure, the argument is weak - raise your voice.” Getting stuck in such models only increases resistance. As soon as you see resistance, change the model instantly.

Sixth rule of influence:

6. Never engage in contact until you have thoroughly analyzed your partner's influence model... Why? The point is that each model of influence has its own goals.

Why is it important to define a model? An incorrectly defined model of influence entails methods of defense and counter-attacks. But if you have not correctly identified the model, then you will not be able to defend and play according to the given rules.

this implies seventh rule of influence:

7. Defend with the same model, attack with a different.

When you have defended yourself from the pattern on which you were attacked, your opponent will want to recoup, and if you continue to use the same model of influence, He will use every effort to rehabilitate. Therefore, do not give him such a chance: as soon as you feel that you are protected, immediately attack using a different model.

Each of us from birth has a tendency to one of the models of influence, which is often our limitation. It is important to understand that there is a place in life for all four models and learn how to effectively apply them in your business.

One of the founders of institutional economics, D. North defined institutions as rules governing economic behavior. These are some constructions, consciously or unconsciously, erected by people in constant attempts to overcome their own imperfection, the limitations of their knowledge and the uncertainty of the behavior of others.

Institutional analysis highlights three types of characters:

− agent- a person “suppressed” by his economic role, which determines all his actions. The agent acts within a certain institution, and his actions are reduced to maximizing the function of disposable income, profit;

− actor - a person who consciously acts and makes his choice;

− actor - a person who carefully tries to "play" his role, a significant part of his efforts is aimed at portraying loyalty to the institution.

Each actor, preparing to make some decision, considers many options (Figure 1). Institutions act as a mechanism for limiting the number of possible options for an infinite “field of choice of decisions” to a “field of permissible decisions”, within which a single decision is made.

Figure 1 - Activity of the actor

Mental models - is a set of “internal frameworks” of activity that every person has, which include knowledge, skills and abilities, values; it is a model of perception of the surrounding world, which is too difficult for perception in all its diversity. The totality of knowledge, skills and abilities determine competence a person, that is, the radius of his capabilities. Allocate two types of competencies:

− instrumental competencies - can be used to obtain satisfaction, income;

− professional competence - determine the place of the actor in the division of labor from the point of view of other actors.

Values \u200b\u200bdetermine the set of possible choices in the space of possible choices, and also affect the actor's acceptance of risk (positively or negatively). Shared values \u200b\u200bcreate the basis for joint activities of people.

The set of common mental models formed by people in the process of their interaction represents the culture of society. The literature also contains the concept "Economically significant culture"Is a set of mental models shared by many actors. The change in the role of the institution is associated with a change in economically significant culture.

Mental models are defined routines - stable stereotypes, habits in people's activities. Routines can also be defined as "an institution for oneself." The emergence of routines is caused by the possibility of saving time, cognitive actions and emotional stress. The simplest classification implies the existence three types of routines: technological, behavioral, economic. Figure 2 shows the relationship between competencies and routines.

Figure 2 - Competencies and routines

From the simplest routines that take shape in individual actions, to complex procedures for the development and adoption of laws, everything is ultimately aimed at eliminating elements of uncertainty and increasing the likelihood of a desired event.

Let us summarize the above. Persistent stereotypes (routines) and values \u200b\u200binherent in people form their mental models (Figure 3). In the process of interaction, people have to correct these models, developing general ideas about basic things (general mental models). They form the culture of society, and within its framework, norms of behavior are formed. The latter are reflected in the structures that regulate human activity. These structures - rules that are supplemented by enforcement mechanisms - are called institutions.

The institutions that exist in society create incentives that influence people's behavior. They reduce the costs of choice in conditions of uncertainty, and allow structuring the costs of functioning within the system. The formation of institutions is an endogenous process, it is associated with the experience of interaction between people and their common history. Attempts from the outside to introduce alien rules will be unsuccessful if they run counter to the culture of society and existing informal practices. On the contrary, formalizing existing practices can be very successful.

Figure 3 - Mechanism for the formation of institutions

Conventions (agreements) unlike an institution, they do not have a coercive mechanism: an actor may not follow the convention and not be formally "punished" at the same time, but such a violation entails additional costs. An agreement is a system of knowledge, skills (primarily communication skills) and value attitudes, common for a certain group of people, allowing them to interact with low costs.

Agreements, in which influential actors are interested in preserving, can take the form of institutions under their influence. Conversely, long-standing formal institutions, after the abolition of their "obligation" can continue to exist in the form of conventions.

There are three possible strategies for the behavior of actors in relation to institutions:

− following institutions -the actor becomes an agent of the institution, or an actor who expects to be rewarded for the strict performance of the role. His behavior is rational if the system of institutions is stable and has great opportunities for coercion and reward;

− use of institutions -the actor seeks to take advantage of the opportunities provided by the institutional environment, choosing any of the non-punishable behavioral strategies. At the same time, he often uses institutions for other purposes than they intended, treats institutions as ordinary factors of production. The better the institution is mastered, the more opportunities the actor has in using it;

− design and construction of institutions -the actor seeks to change the institution itself. Obviously, for this he must have the appropriate powers and resources.

http://studopedia.org/1-31399.html

Routine

- How do you do your miracles?
- What are these miracles?
- Well, ... fulfillment of desires ...
- Oh, this? How I do ... I was trained from childhood, so I am doing it. How do I know how I do ...
[conversation with goldfish]

A. and B. Strugatsky 8

Initially the concept routine (routine) was introduced by the creators of the evolutionary theory R. Nelson and S. Winter in relation to the activities of organizations and defined by them as "normal and predictable patterns of behavior" 9. However, routine behavior is characteristic not only of organizations, but also of individuals. With regard to the latter, routines can be divided into two categories: technological routinesformed in the process of interaction between man and nature, and relational routinesformed in the process of interaction between people.

On the machine, the turner applies the same techniques day after day, most of the time automatically. He does not need to pronounce the sequence of actions, giving himself mental instructions. His actions are fine-tuned, they consist of a set of technological routines. The same applies to the actions of a woman doing housework, a postman delivering newspapers, a teacher who checks student papers. Why is the formation of such routines human?

Technological routines perform an important function: they reduce decision-making costs. When faced with a problem, we tend to choose a solution that, based on past experience, has been recognized by us as successful. The vast majority of such routines are unconscious and are implemented on the basis of implicit knowledge 10... We are not aware of how we tie our shoes, open the door with the key, or brush our teeth. Moreover, it is often easier for us to do something than to write instructions on how to do it.

For a long time people did not realize the difference between technological and relational routines, seeing a direct cause-and-effect relationship between their actions and the reaction of nature to them. It is on such repetitive actions aimed at stimulating certain reactions of nature that many customs are based. In the XIX century. the eminent ethnographer Edward Taylor wrote:

Modern Serbs, dancing and singing, lead a little girl, dressed with leaves and flowers, and pour cups of water over her to make it rain. Sailors sometimes whistle the wind when it is calm, but in fact they do not like the whistle in the sea that the whistling wind raises. The fish must eat from tail to head ... to bring the heads of other fish to the shore, because if they are eaten in the wrong way, the fish turns from the shore.

By the way, such a primitive idea of \u200b\u200bthe animate nature of the whole world also conditioned attempts to “punish” nature for “bad behavior”. For instance,

... the Persian king Xerxes, during his campaign against Greece (5th century BC), ordered the construction of bridges across the Hellespont (Dardanelles), but the storm swept them apart. For this Xerxes ordered the scourging of the Hellespont. And Cyrus, the Persian king (VI century BC), during the campaign to Babylon, punished the Hindu River, which took one of the sacred horses, ordering it to be dug up and turned into a shallow river. 11

Technological routines make it easier for us to make choices in a situation of uncertainty, with a lack of information. Unable to assess how effective alternative behaviors are, we tend to display a negative attitude toward risk, preferring to follow proven patterns of behavior. The less knowledge people have about the world around them, the higher the degree of uncertainty, the more stable the routines. Uncertainty against the background of limited cognitive capabilities makes constant optimization of behavior not only very costly, but also often meaningless. Routine in this case acts as an element of insurance.

A significant part of any person's activity is inevitably associated with other people. Within the framework of social interactions and add up relational routines... They, in addition to the function of reducing the costs of decision making described above, perform another important function - the function of coordination. Unlike Nature, people are strategic players, and when choosing a line of behavior, they tend to take into account the possible reaction of others to their actions. When we know that our partners are acting in accordance with stereotypes, we have certain expectations about their future actions, and in accordance with these expectations we choose a strategy for our behavior. Thus, routines make it possible, by building a system of mutual expectations, to introduce an element of coordination and predictability into relationships.

Routines are a way to compact storage knowledge (knowledge) and skills (skills), which are required by a person for his activities (Fig. 2.1).

Figure: 2.1. Components of a routine

Fully mastering a particular routine based on explicit knowledge alone (eg, written instructions) can be prohibitively expensive. To reduce them, you need appropriate skills that are developed by exercises. Indeed, providing a person with instructions on how to ride a bicycle does not mean teaching him how to ride a bicycle. A culinary recipe, guided by which a person who has never approached the stove in his life could bake a cake, would take more than a dozen pages. There is always something that cannot be conveyed in words, which, however, is the very essence of knowledge.

At large enterprises, the decision-making system is built on organizational routines that provide a mechanism to protect against irrational behavior of economic agents making decisions. This mechanism, in addition to positive properties, has negative ones - in particular, slow decision-making.

Let's imagine that your financial and industrial group has the opportunity to buy an oil company for a very favorable terms... And although you perfectly understand that it must be formalized very quickly (only then it will take place), the existing organizational routines are not designed for this. It is possible to prepare the documents necessary for analysis in a few days, but the question of the deal is included in the scheduled meeting of the board of directors (this is a very important question!), Scheduled only a month later. As a result, due to the inflexibility of the decision-making system, the deal breaks down.

The need to develop skills for the implementation of existing knowledge determines the evolutionary nature of the formation and change of routines. If the conditions under which firms or individuals operate change, then the routines existing in their memory are no longer effective. The process of adaptation to new conditions, expressed in the search for new strategies of behavior, mastering and consolidating them as routines, depends on the nature of the knowledge that underlies these routines: the less explicit the knowledge, the more time-consuming this process.

The problem of the lack of routines during the transition to a market economy was encountered in the early 1990s. enterprises of the countries of Eastern Europe. New market conditions opened up new opportunities, but in order to exploit them, enterprises needed the skills to work in completely unfamiliar conditions. According to studies 12, a few years after the start of reforms, Eastern European and developed market economies were equally proficient in routines that were based on easily transferable explicit knowledge (the level of compulsory education) and implicit knowledge not related to commercial experience (availability of qualified engineers and workers). However, in routines that are based on implicit knowledge about the functioning of the market (the time required for the development and marketing of a new product, the introduction of a quality control system), the countries of Eastern Europe lagged significantly behind the countries with developed economies.

The results of comparison for 1994 of Hungarian enterprises with enterprises of other countries (the sample was carried out for 41 countries) are presented in table. 2.1.

Tab. 2.1. Comparison of Hungarian companies with companies in other countries

In accordance with our knowledge, we form certain mental models... Through their prism, we perceive the world. They determine our reactions and allow us to choose a line of behavior in the most economical way in terms of spending cognitive efforts. Thus, the rational choice model can be adjusted by including mental models as an element of the decision-making mechanism (Fig. 2.2).

Figure: 2.2. Choice based on mental models

So, faced with the difficulties of perceiving the surrounding world, we build a simplified model of it. It provides behavioral prescriptions that enable us to solve specific problems. These prescriptions are stored as routines, and we master them as we learn and gain experience.

This section discusses the main components of culture and its impact on the economic behavior of people. Particular attention is paid to the analysis of values \u200b\u200bas a factor in decision-making by various groups of economic agents.

IN social interactions people critically assess the activities of others, and individuals with common mental models have very similar assessments. We can talk about the existence of certain values \u200b\u200bin society - ideas (at different levels of abstraction) about what is good and what is bad. The transfer of value judgments occurs within the framework of mental models and leads to their correction. Mental patterns shared by society as a whole persist culture this society.

Of course, the economy really is made up of technology, actions, markets, financial institutions and factories - all of which are real and material. But deep down, at the most elementary level, they are controlled, and behind this control are representations ... They shape and bring together the economy at the macro level ... They are the DNA of the economy.

B. Arthur (1995) 15

The fundamental element of culture - values, since it is they who set the vector of human activity. It depends on their character what knowledge and skills a person will accumulate (Fig. 2.5).

Figure: 2.5. Culture components

The approach of Hofstede 16, one of the most renowned cultural specialists, is somewhat similar to that of North and Denzau, who define culture through shared mental models. Hofstede believes that in many ways a person's behavior depends on his mental programs (he is “programmed” to implement them). By mental programs, Hofstede means "patterns of thinking, feeling, and acting." He distinguishes three levels of such programs (Fig. 2.6).

Figure: 2.6. Three levels of mental programs

At the lower level are universal programs that are similar for all individuals. They are genetically inherited and are an integral part of human nature... At the middle level are those mental programs that are specific to a particular group of individuals. They are formed through social learning with constant interaction within the group. Models of this level Hofstede calls culture... At the highest level are mental programs specific to a particular individual. They define it individuality, distinguish it from others. Part of these programs are inherited genetically, partly formed through learning.

From the point of view of Hofstede, the level of culture is of the greatest interest for analysis. To analyze the cultural characteristics of various groups, he developed a special methodology, which we will return to in the chapter "Theory of organizations" in the context of organizational culture and in the chapter "Institutions and institutional change" in the context of cross-country cultural differences.

Speaking of economic culture as that part of culture that concerns economic interactions, it makes sense to single out three of its levels - mass economic culture, economic culture of decision-makers at the level of organizations, and theoretical economic culture. These levels form a pyramid of economic culture 17 (Fig. 2.7a).

Figure: 2.7a. The pyramid of economic culture

The first (lower) floor of the pyramid - mass economic culture. These are the values, knowledge, skills and perceptions of the mass of consumers, the mass of hired workers. It is a culture of people who make decisions only for themselves and their families. At this level, explicit knowledge as an element of culture has little or no effect on economic behavior, which is primarily driven by values \u200b\u200band skills. Skills are acquired by imitating successful patterns of behavior of others, and they are usually imitated without critical reflection and evaluation. At times of crises in social consciousness and abrupt changes in the economic structure, when values \u200b\u200bare being revised in society, such imitation can cause massive ineffective behavior, for example, participation in financial pyramids. In principle, deep economic knowledge is not required to understand that the pyramid exists only as long as new people bring money into it, and that it will fall apart as soon as this process stops. However, people carried money to MMM and other pyramids, guided by the principle "others carry, I will carry it too."

One more example. At present, most Russians do not realize that a job well done is worthy of respect, and for us now this is the main value problem of mass economic culture. Probably, the roots of this problem lie in the fact that many of our fellow citizens worked all their lives without receiving normal remuneration and respect for their work during the Soviet economy, and even earlier - under serfdom. But very often it takes about the same time and the same efforts to do something good or bad!

The second floor of the pyramid - economic culture of managers and leaders of organizations (decision-makers), constituting the so-called managerial link of organizations. The decisions of managers already apply to tens, hundreds and thousands of people who have entrusted them with the realization of their own interests, delegating to them their decision-making power.

The third (upper) floor of the pyramid - theoretical economic culture... This is the culture of professional economists. If in our country millions of people are involved in mass economic culture and hundreds of thousands are decision-makers, then tens of thousands (no more!) Are professional economists who create schemes that are used by both decision-makers and people of mass economic behavior. ... Analyzing the decisions of others, professional economists do not make decisions themselves. They generalize and provide ready-made block diagrams of such solutions.

Note that the higher we climb the pyramid of economic culture, the more decisions made are based on theoretical knowledge and the less role values \u200b\u200bhave in decision making (see Figure 2.7b). It is mass economic behavior that determines values. They determine incentives and specific behavioral restrictions, the specifics of economic activity and its results. As a result, under the same economic conditions and under the influence of the same economic policy, different groups belonging to different cultures can develop in different ways. There are many examples of this - Chinese families in Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, the United States, Japanese diasporas in Brazil and the United States, etc.

Values \u200b\u200bcan contribute to economic growth (as happened in the United States, where the Chinese family business is successfully developing), or, on the contrary, they can slow it down (as happened in Russia at the beginning of market reforms, when the values \u200b\u200bformed in the framework of the planned economy significantly reduced efficiency new management mechanisms). Moreover, the influence of one and the same value can be directly opposite in different periods of development. For example, the Japanese have a high saving rate. This attitude towards money took shape during the tough post-war times and contributed to Japan's economic growth until the long recession began. Now it has become an obstacle: the Japanese believe that in a crisis it is necessary to save more, and even the increase in payments and subsidies, stimulated by the government, can not make them spend more.

The question is not in identifying cultural properties as such, but in identifying the political and economic environment in which these cultural factors can function actively and dynamically.

H. Xiao (1988) 18

Figure: 2.7b. The ratio of the components of culture at different levels of the pyramid

So, values \u200b\u200bare one of the factors that determine the success of economic development. Another factor is government policy. It, like values, affects the incentives of individual participants in economic relations.

Model: Government Policy, Values \u200b\u200band Business Structure in China

Model: Government Policy, Values \u200b\u200band Business Structure in China 19 Collapse

Consider economic activity (exchange relations) as a sequence of interactions between entrepreneurs. These interactions are described by the game, the payoff matrix of which is shown in table. 2.3.

Tab. 2.3. Exchange relations

	Cooperative behavior	Non-cooperative behavior
Cooperative behavior	x; y	z; y
Non-cooperative behavior	y; z	w; w

Each of the participants chooses between cooperative behavior (implying the supply of goods) and non-cooperative (violation of the supply contract). If both participants choose cooperation, an exchange is implemented, in which each participant acts as a seller of his own goods and a buyer of someone else's. If one participant chooses to cooperate and the other behaves non-cooperatively, the former is exploited by the latter.

The benefits derived by the participants from interaction depend not only on their behavior, but also on government policy (in particular, on government intervention in business in one form or another). Since the interaction repeats in time, the current decisions of the participants are influenced by the history of their relationship.

- the value of the product for the seller;

- the value of the product for the buyer; , while the gain of the other participant will be, and in the absence of incentives to cooperate, the behavior of the participants will be non-cooperative. and. Thus, in each period, there is an interaction described by the prisoners' dilemma 20. Its result is determined by how strong the incentives for cooperation (in particular, what is the time horizon of the relationship).

We use these findings to analyze the structure of business relations that have developed in Chinese society under the influence of prevailing norms and values.

Public policy. Since the beginning of the 40s. XIX century, when industry began to develop in China, and until the end of the 40s. XX century the state behaved at times predatory, at times neutral, and as for the basic legal and financial institutions that distribute risks and protect contracts, they were practically absent. The state, while granting considerable autonomy to private enterprises, nevertheless did not contribute to their development. The stability of the business environment was not supported by the state, but by the trade guilds. It was they who provided standards and resolved disputes. But their capabilities were limited - the power of the guilds, in comparison with the power of the state, was small, and, in addition, the transition to public service was typical for merchants, and by the end of the 19th century. the opposite trend has also emerged, i.e. That is, business and government merged with all the ensuing consequences.

Because of the inability of political institutions to protect formal contracts, it was irrational to rely on them in cooperative relationships. Yet cooperation was achieved, not through trust in political mechanisms, but through trust between individuals who shared common values.

Values. The Confucian system of values \u200b\u200bbased on family ties is inherent in the Chinese society. According to Confucius, people should act in the interests of those with whom they are related, but only if

they themselves will not suffer direct losses from such behavior;
their actions will not harm those with whom they have an even closer kinship;
their potential partners have always behaved cooperatively in the past.

These traditional values \u200b\u200bextended to business relationship since their inception in China. The participants in the interactions tried to narrow the circle of their partners, choosing them from among the closest relatives who had never been noticed in inappropriate behavior before. Moreover, it was also beneficial for those who did not share Confucian values \u200b\u200binitially to behave in accordance with them, so that they would be accepted as partners. Thus, Confucian values \u200b\u200bcreated a platform for the formation of cooperative relations and were subsequently transferred from the agricultural to the industrial urban context.

As a result, until a certain stage, firms in China tended to be small or medium-sized, and each was controlled by one family. These firms did not develop vertically and, at the first opportunity, were divided into several independent firms, each of which was still run by a separate family, which is understandable. Indeed, if preference is given to relations of consanguinity, then after a generation friction often begins between numerous relatives due to the difficulty of determining the degree of kinship. However, Confucian values \u200b\u200bdo not provide any clear strategy for the firm as a whole, and the problem can only be solved through separation.

So, the incentives of participants in relations to cooperation are influenced not only by economic policy, but also by common cultural values. Policy, by influencing performance, indirectly contributes to the change of these values \u200b\u200bin the long term.

http://www.econline.edu.ru/textbook/Glava_2_Ekonomi4esko/2_3__Obwie_mentalny

The concept of routine was introduced by Nelson and Winter in relation to the activities of organizations and defined by them as "normal and predictable patterns of behavior." However, routine behavior is characteristic not only of organizations, but also of individuals. With regard to the latter, routines can be divided into two categories

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Introduction

This paper deals with the topic "National mentality and features of organizational behavior."

Today there are about three thousand nations and more than two hundred sovereign states in the world. Each ethnic group, state, people, nation is characterized by its own historical and economic path of development, its own culture, its own behavior. Meanwhile, active globalization is a feature of the modern world. The interdependence of transportation, sales, communications and economic networks leads to the creation of global organizations with structures in which national characteristics are, as it were, erased, personnel in them are recruited regardless of nationality. However, to control behavior in international organization it is important to understand the peculiarities of the national mentality.

The problem of correct understanding of the peculiarities of the influence of national psychology on the interaction and behavior of people in an organization has a pronounced complex and scientific-applied nature. Being in the sphere of interests of a number of scientific disciplines - ethnopsychology, personality psychology, social psychology, organizational psychology, sociology of organizations, management psychology, developmental psychology, as well as specific management practice - for its productive solution it requires a special projection on the understanding of its content and specifics as achievements of each of the listed branches of knowledge, as well as a generalized varied experience of management proper.

Without taking into account the national mentality, historically formed differences in the theory and practice of management, it is impossible to achieve effective organizational behavior. Therefore, the relevance of the topic of the work is beyond doubt.

The purpose of the work is to analyze the influence of the national mentality on the organizational behavior of the organization's personnel.

The object of the research is the role of national mentality in organizational behavior.

The subject of the research is the national mentality, its influence on the organizational behavior of the organization's personnel, taking into account national characteristics when managing the organization.

Numerous works of domestic and foreign scientists who have studied managerial activity and leadership styles, the processes of formation and development of communicative competence, professional mentality, personal characteristics and typology of managers have not yet been reflected: 1) clear ideas about the relationship of interaction and professional activity with the national psychology of their subjects ; 2) the dependence of organizational culture, management style and typology of behavior in the organization on the manifestation of national psychological characteristics her staff; 3) the originality and patterns of management of a polyethnic collective.

So, the effective work of any organization in Russia is impossible without an integrated approach to management and taking into account the Russian mentality and realities. The organizational culture of an enterprise is, in fact, a subculture of the national culture and mentality prevailing in the state. This is especially evident when the general principles of management are implemented by representatives of a particular national culture, and in this case we can talk about European, American, Japanese, Russian schools of management. Within the framework of these national schools of management, mentality is manifested in the forms of translation into the organizational field of management of certain national traditions and archetypes, psychological characteristics of the behavior of both individuals and social groups... In a word, the outline of "mentality" makes it possible to take into account the uniqueness of this or that nation, this or that culture and, finally, the originality of an individual personality when building a certain model of organization and developing certain organizational strategies.

Let us consider in more detail the national characteristics of organizational behavior.

Chapter 1. The essence and tasks of studying the national mentality
1.1. Mentality and national culture

Let's start by defining mentality. Mentality is a subconscious socio-psychological "program" of actions and behavior of individuals, the nation as a whole, manifested in the minds and practical activities of people. The source of its formation is a set of psychological, socio-economic, natural and climatic phenomena acting during the long evolution of the country.

Ethnic self-awareness is formed from early childhood on the basis of generally recognized postulates and determines the way of thinking and behavior of a person. It is very stable. People of different cultures perceive all life phenomena from the standpoint of national traditions and a kind of scale of values.

When people interact with each other internationally, ethnocentrism can lead to communication problems, create formidable barriers, and even antagonism and hostility. Therefore, the most important condition for interpersonal communication in the international environment is a respectful attitude towards different cultures, their national characteristics and traditions.

Culture, both organizational and national, is a product of the values \u200b\u200band norms that people use to guide and control their behavior. It is the values \u200b\u200bthat determine what people consider to be good, right, or consistent with the goals they should achieve. Values \u200b\u200bare also set by norms that prescribe appropriate behaviors to achieve these goals. At the national level, a country's values \u200b\u200band norms determine which types of attitudes and behaviors are acceptable or appropriate and which are not. People begin to absorb the national culture, socialize within the framework of these values \u200b\u200bas children, when they gradually assimilate the norms and social recommendations that set the way people behave within a given culture in relation to each other, and often to people with a different culture.
There have been many studies that have established the similarities and differences between cultural values \u200b\u200band norms that exist in different countries. Geert Hofstede's model of national culture argues that differences in values \u200b\u200band norms across countries are captured by five cultural positions (these will be discussed in more detail in Chapters 2 and 3 of the work).
Let's consider organization management as a form of mentality expression.

1.2. Management as a form of mentality expression.

Nowadays it is generally recognized that national and regional mentality is the most important factor influencing the forms, functions and structure of management. There are a number of definitions of mentality: mentality is “a set of historically formed psychological characteristics of a nation’s behavior”, “a kind of people's memory of the past, a psychological determinant of the behavior of millions of people who are true to their historically formed“ code ”in any circumstances ...”, “.. . a certain socio-psychological state of the subject - nation, nationality, people, its citizens, - imprinted in itself (not “in the memory of the people”, but in its subconsciousness) the results of a long and stable impact of ethnic, natural-geographical and socio-economic living conditions subject of mentality ”.

These definitions are not only about the psychological, but also about the socio-psychological nature of the mentality. Burtenko A.P. and Kolesnichenko Yu.V., based on the research of L.S. Vygotsky, note the genetic, historical, natural and climatic sources of this phenomenon, highlighting mainly the mentality as a "code" that determines the social behavior of an individual and a nation.

In my opinion, mentality is a subconscious socio-psychological "program" of actions and behavior of individuals, the nation as a whole, manifested in the minds and practical activities of people. The source of its formation is a set of psychological, socio-economic, natural and climatic phenomena acting during the long evolution of the country.

The manifestation of a biopsychological program of human behavior affects various spheres of human activity: everyday life, communication, production. It has a significant impact on management.

Thus, while analyzing the forms and methods of government in different countries, one cannot but take into account German punctuality, English conservatism, American pragmatism, Japanese paternalism, and Russian laxity. A person cannot be free from society, from himself, his mentality. Moreover, he is always in a certain hierarchical system: either subordinates and leads, or obeys. Even alone, he guides his actions, actions that subconsciously emanate from his mentality. Therefore, management is a form of mentality expression.

If a person is accustomed to group life, then the specific basis that forms the management system is reliance on the team, collective control and decision-making. If a society has established a system of values \u200b\u200bbased on individualism, heightened self-esteem, etc., then the framework of the supporting structure that has grown into the control system is the reliance on individual qualities, the use of individual forms of control.

It is possible that in the land of "limonium" or "banania" the main hallmark mentality will be the laziness of its inhabitants, caused by the abundance of lemons and bananas. In such circumstances, the management system will inevitably reflect this quality. A manager who wants to achieve a certain result will have to use strict control to make and implement managerial decisions, introduce a clear work schedule, special incentive methods that transform a lazy worker.

The predominance of hard work, frugality, punctuality, etc., will also determine the forms and methods of management, permeate the behavior and actions of managers. The latter need to take them into account, playing on human weaknesses and strengths of character as on the keys of a “piano”.

Thus, management as a form of mentality expression is a manifestation of an internal, deep social and psychological program inherent in a person. In this capacity, mentality is the universal basis for the behavioral characteristics of an employee.

Chapter 2. Features of the Russian mentality and organizational behavior

2.1. Organizational behavior and personal qualities of the employee

Organizational behavior is a science that studies the behavior of people (individuals and groups) in organizations, with the aim of practical use of the knowledge gained to improve efficiency labor activity person 1. Organizational behavior can also be defined as understanding, anticipating and managing human behavior within organizations. 2

The subject of organizational behavior is the relationship of all levels of the management system with a focus on the development of effective management methods in conditions competitive environment functioning. 3

Objects of study of organizational behavior:

The behavior of individuals in the organization;

Problems of interpersonal relations in the interaction of two individuals (colleagues or a pair "boss - subordinate");

Dynamics of relationships within small groups (both formal and informal);

Emerging intergroup relationships;

Organizations as holistic systems, the basis of which is formed by intra-organizational relationships.

The goals of organizational behavior are:

1. a systematic description of people's behavior in various situations arising in the process of labor;

2. explanation of the reasons for the actions of individuals in certain conditions;

3. prediction of employee behavior in the future; Coursework \u003e\u003e Management

Germany) 1) Priority of preparation employee by the company (.... Since him national organizational culture is inherent ... national mentality... Therefore, the importance of a question such as influence national culture on behavior person in the organization, on ...

Influence corporate culture on organizational performance

Abstract \u003e\u003e Management

Called mentality... It has a huge influence on their daily behavior ... workersespecially in the upper echelon. The position of a manager in such companies is not determined by the number him ... the culture of the leader and national culture, mission of the organization ...

National economics: results and their measurement

Cheat Sheet \u003e\u003e Economics

Reallocations national income. ... Russian mentality sociability ... behavior employee consists of targeted impact on behavior staff through influence on conditions him life activity, using the motives driving him ...

Influence organizational culture on the results of the work of the enterprise personnel

Abstract \u003e\u003e Management

Consumer, encourage him to purchase ... workers... Cultures with many levels of faith and values \u200b\u200bhave a strong influence on behavior ... National culture is another factor that influence on ... the specifics of legislation and mentality, as well as specifics ...

Introduction

This paper deals with the topic "National mentality and features of organizational behavior."

Today there are about three thousand nations and more than two hundred sovereign states in the world. Each ethnic group, state, people, nation is characterized by its own historical and economic path of development, its own culture, its own behavior. Meanwhile, active globalization is a feature of the modern world. The interdependence of transportation, sales, communications and economic networks leads to the creation of global organizations with structures in which national characteristics are, as it were, erased, personnel in them are recruited regardless of nationality. However, in order to manage behavior in an international organization, it is important to understand the characteristics of the national mentality.

The purpose of the work is to analyze the influence of the national mentality on the organizational behavior of the organization's personnel.

The object of the research is the role of national mentality in organizational behavior.

Numerous works of domestic and foreign scientists who have studied managerial activity and leadership styles, the processes of formation and development of communicative competence, professional mentality, personal characteristics and typology of managers have not yet been reflected: 1) clear ideas about the relationship of interaction and professional activity with the national psychology of their subjects ; 2) the dependence of organizational culture, management style and typology of behavior in the organization on the manifestation of the national psychological characteristics of its personnel; 3) the originality and patterns of management of a polyethnic collective.

So, the effective work of any organization in Russia is impossible without an integrated approach to management and taking into account the Russian mentality and realities. The organizational culture of an enterprise is, in fact, a subculture of the national culture and mentality prevailing in the state. This is especially pronounced when the general principles of management are implemented by representatives of a particular national culture, and in this case we can talk about European, American, Japanese, Russian schools of management. Within the framework of these national schools of management, mentality is manifested in the forms of translation into the organizational field of management of certain national traditions and archetypes, psychological characteristics of the behavior of both individuals and social groups. In a word, the “mentality” contour makes it possible to take into account the uniqueness of this or that nation, this or that culture and, finally, the originality of an individual personality when building a certain model of organization and developing certain organizational strategies.

Let us consider in more detail the national characteristics of organizational behavior.

Chapter 1. The essence and tasks of studying the national mentality
1.1. Mentality and national culture

Culture, both organizational and national, is a product of the values \u200b\u200band norms that people use to guide and control their behavior. It is the values \u200b\u200bthat determine what people consider to be good, right, or consistent with the goals they should achieve. Values \u200b\u200bare also set by norms that prescribe appropriate behaviors to achieve those goals. At the national level, a country's values \u200b\u200band norms determine which types of attitudes and behaviors are acceptable or appropriate and which are not. People begin to absorb the national culture, socialize within the framework of these values \u200b\u200bas children, when they gradually assimilate the norms and social recommendations that set the way people behave within a given culture in relation to each other, and often to people with a different culture.
There have been many studies that have established the similarities and differences between cultural property and regulations in different countries. Geert Hofstede's model of national culture argues that differences in values \u200b\u200band norms across countries are captured by five cultural positions (these will be discussed in more detail in Chapters 2 and 3 of the work).
Let's consider organization management as a form of mentality expression.

1.2. Management as a form of mentality expression.

Nowadays it is generally recognized that national and regional mentality is the most important factor influencing the forms, functions and structure of management. There are a number of definitions of mentality: mentality is “a set of historically formed psychological characteristics of a nation’s behavior,” “a kind of people's memory of the past, a psychological determinant of the behavior of millions of people who are faithful to their historically formed“ code ”in any circumstances ...”, “… certain the socio-psychological state of the subject - a nation, nationality, people, its citizens, - which imprinted in itself (not “in the memory of the people”, but in its subconsciousness) the results of a long and sustainable impact of ethnic, natural-geographical and socio-economic living conditions ”.

These definitions deal not only with the psychological, but also with the socio-psychological nature of mentality. Burtenko A.P. and Kolesnichenko Yu.V., based on the research of L.S. Vygotsky, note the genetic, historical, natural and climatic sources of this phenomenon, highlighting mainly the mentality as a "code" that determines the social behavior of an individual and a nation.

The manifestation of a biopsychological program of human behavior affects various spheres of human activity: everyday life, communication, production. It has a significant impact on management.

Thus, while analyzing the forms and methods of government in different countries, one cannot but take into account German punctuality, English conservatism, American pragmatism, Japanese paternalism, and Russian laxity. A person cannot be free from society, from himself, his mentality. Moreover, he is always in a certain hierarchical system: either subordinates and leads, or obeys. Even alone, he guides his actions, actions that subconsciously emanate from his mentality. Consequently, management is a form of mentality expression.

It is possible that in the country of "limonium" or "bananas" the main distinguishing feature of the mentality will be the laziness of its inhabitants, caused by the abundance of lemons and bananas. In such circumstances, the management system will inevitably reflect this quality. A manager wanting to achieve a certain result will have to use to accept and implement management decisions tight control, introduce a clear work schedule, special incentive methods that transform a lazy worker.

The predominance of diligence, frugality, punctuality, etc., will also determine the forms and methods of management, permeate the behavior, actions of managers. The latter need to take them into account, playing on human weaknesses and strengths of character as on the keys of a “piano”.

Thus, management as a form of mentality expression is a manifestation of an inner, deep social and psychological program inherent in a person. In this capacity, mentality is the universal basis for the behavioral characteristics of an employee.

Chapter 2. Features of the Russian mentality and organizational behavior

2.1. Organizational behavior and personal qualities of the employee

Organizational behavior is a science that studies the behavior of people (individuals and groups) in organizations, with the aim of practical use of the knowledge gained to improve the efficiency of a person's labor activity. Organizational behavior can also be defined as understanding, anticipating and managing human behavior within organizations.

The subject of organizational behavior is the interconnection of all levels of the management system with a focus on the development of effective management methods in a competitive operating environment.

Objects of study of organizational behavior:

The behavior of individuals in the organization;

Problems of interpersonal relations in the interaction of two individuals (colleagues or a pair "boss - subordinate");

Dynamics of relationships within small groups (both formal and informal);

Emerging intergroup relationships;

Organizations as holistic systems, the basis of which is formed by intra-organizational relationships.

The goals of organizational behavior are:

1. a systematic description of people's behavior in various situations arising in the process of labor;

2. explanation of the reasons for the actions of individuals in certain conditions;

3. prediction of employee behavior in the future;

4. mastering the skills of managing the behavior of people in the labor process and their improvement.

Organizational behavior studies the behavior of people in an organization and assesses its impact on the results of its activities, therefore, the main objectives of this discipline are:

1. Identification of behavioral relationships between the manager and his subordinates, including between colleagues.

2. Ensuring the formation of a favorable psychological climate in the team, the elimination of conflict situations, the creation of an atmosphere of creative potential of employees.

3. A systematic description of people's behavior in various situations arising in the labor process.

4. Explanation of the actions of people in certain conditions.

5. Ability to anticipate the situation.

6. Mastering the skills of managing the behavior of people in the process of work and finding ways to improve the efficiency of their activities.

The organizational behavior is based on the use of socio-psychological management methods. Socio-psychological methods are management methods based on the use of socio-psychological factors and aimed at managing the socio-psychological processes occurring in the team, to influence them in order to achieve the goals set for the organization.

Social impact is carried out by:

Purposeful formation of the organization's personnel;

Moral incentives for employees;

Use of methods for managing individual behavior;

Implementation of collective activities of employees and the use of their social activity.

The psychological impact is based on:

Using methods of psychological motivation (motivation);

Taking into account the individual characteristics of employees (temperament, character, abilities, personality orientation, human needs);

Psychological aspects of human activity (attention, emotions, will, speech, skills and abilities).

In this regard, any working person, including a manager, has to interact with dozens or even hundreds of people every day. Someone has to primarily interact with colleagues individually. Someone has a responsibility to regularly hold events in which many employees participate. And, consequently, a person's behavior is determined by his personal qualities, the influence of the conditions for the formation of individual activity, the characteristics of the group into which he is included, and the conditions of joint activity, the characteristics of the organization and the country in which he works. Therefore, OP researchers pay considerable attention to considering personal qualities people who are important for the performance of this or that work. Important personal characteristics include self-esteem, locus of control, authoritarianism, Machiavellianism, type A orientation, achievement orientation, risk taking, dogmatism, self-monitoring.

Self-assessment determines the level at which a person evaluates his / her significance, luck and performance. In other words, personality self-esteem represents his own assessment of its significance, the degree of a person's relationship to himself. People have a personal opinion about what to do, about their capabilities, about how they look in the eyes of others. Research shows that self-esteem largely depends on the situation, personal success or failure, the opinions of others, and the role that, in his own opinion, a person plays. Nevertheless, self-esteem can be considered as a fairly stable basic characteristic or dimension of a person's personal qualities, associated with the characteristics of his work, motivation of actions and the expectation of success.

Self-esteem affects human behavior in organizational and socially in several very important ways. For example, self-esteem is related to the initial choices that the employee makes. People with high self-esteem are subject to a high degree of risk in choosing their job, may gravitate towards occupying higher positions, and are more prone to choosing non-traditional occupations than people with less self-esteem. People with lower self-esteem set themselves less difficult tasks than people with higher self-esteem, and are more susceptible to the influence of others in dealing with organizational issues.

Locus of control - personality trait, first described and explored by J. Rotter. People can be characterized by an internal or external locus of control. Those who are external locus of control (externalities), it is believed that all life events are mainly the result of chance or luck. They constantly feel like hostages of fate, the game of which is beyond their control.

People characterized by internal locus of control (internals), believe that they can influence the course of their lives and that what happened to them or will happen is the result of their own decisions. They consider themselves the masters of their own destiny. Research shows that individuals with an internal locus of control report greater job satisfaction when working in a participatory (i.e., with elements of self-management) management, while employees with an external locus of control feel comfortable in a directive management environment.

The interrelationships of the locus of control indicators with the characteristics of the workers' activity, their motivation, satisfaction, diligence and perception of the management style were found. Thus, the behavior of externalists is highly dependent on rewards, and dissatisfaction with work allows us to predict the departure from the organization of persons with high indicators of the internal locus of control.

On the whole, externalists are less satisfied with their status in the organization, are more often absent from the workplace for some objective reasons, feel less involved in work and organizational life than interns. Externalities' dissatisfaction is largely due to the fact that they perceive themselves to be deprived of control over organizational processes. At the same time, internals view the same processes as the result of their own actions. It is curious how the considered personality trait affects the health of employees. Internals believe that their health is in their own hands, and therefore they take it with greater responsibility, demonstrating a desire for a healthy lifestyle and a willingness to give up bad habits. This largely determines their less than that of internals, absenteeism, evasion from the life of the organization. Just like attributive theory, locus of control concept focuses on people explaining what is happening to them. It is of great managerial importance. Internals are more likely to want to have a say in how they do their job, since they believe that what happens to them depends on how well they control their environment. In contrast, external parties may be less inclined to participate in the decision-making process.

Authoritarianism Is a model of behavior based on the belief that there are (or should exist) status and power differences in the organization, and the use of power is a necessary and important element of the functioning of an effective organization. People with high rates of authoritarianism are devoid of intellectual doubts, respectful with people of higher status and dismissive with subordinates, suspicious of changes, more inclined to follow the rules. They often show themselves as leaders in situations that require unity of command and high demands. The presence of authoritarian traits in employees negatively affects their OP and performance in situations where work requires empathy, tact, and the ability to adapt to difficult changing circumstances. At the same time, where the organizational situation is highly structured and the success of the activity depends primarily on strict adherence to the rules and regulations, the authoritarian characteristics of employees are quite appropriate.

Close to authoritarianism is another personality trait called Machiavellianism (after the Italian politician and writer of the 16th century Niccola Machiavelli, the author of the famous treatise The Sovereign, which tells about how to obtain and use power).

Machiavellianism. Individuals with this trait are pragmatic, constantly maintain an emotional distance from other people, and in their actions proceed from the fact that the end justifies the means. “If the tool gives the desired result, use it without thinking about whether you acted worthily or unworthily” - this is the principle that such a worker consciously or spontaneously follows. Personality with traits machiavellianism - this is a person who tries to use other people to solve his own problems, to a greater extent reveals the desire to manipulate others, the will to win, the ability to convince in his righteousness and unwillingness to listen to someone's advice and admonitions. They are unemotional and independent, trying to take control of the situation into their own hands and prefer to get the most out of the least predictable situations. They act purposefully enough if the solution to the problem brings them sufficient benefit in one form or another. The manifestation of this personality trait is due to certain organizational factors. The following conditions are especially favorable for persons with severe Machiavellianism:

1) when their interaction with others does not occur indirectly, but proceeds through direct communication, face to face;

2) when the situation is full of uncertainty and is not limited by rigid rules and instructions, opening up a wide scope for improvisation;

3) when general emotional involvement and focus on private issues reign in a group or organization.

The value of individuals with high scores of Machiavellianism to the organization depends not only on the type of work, but also on the role of ethical considerations in performance evaluation. In tasks that require negotiation skills or where the cost of winning is high, these workers can be extremely productive. But if the ends cannot justify the means, if there are absolute standards of ethical behavior, or if the above organizational factors are present, then it is hardly possible to predict the behavior of a person with such a personality trait. There are differences between representatives of different cultures in relation to behavior in the style of Machiavelli. In cultures where the power of social authority plays a significant role, managers with a high level of behavior in this style are more successful. These managers are successful in business also because they are accustomed to working in a highly competitive and complex environment and are able to maintain success for a long time.

Type A orientation. The concept of type A orientation has received significant development, not only because of the associated significant risk of vascular disease, but also because it has significant applied potential for predicting behavior both in and out of work, as well as due to its response to stress. Type A orientation is characterized by an underlying tendency of “everyone and everything” to be in control of the manager, which is expressed in the fact that such people constantly feel the need to rush, are characterized by a reluctance to wait, constantly feel lack of time, like to compete and compete in work and in everyday situations constantly compare their results with those of other people. Such people take on several cases at once, they are also distinguished by exceptional ambition and aggressiveness, they always strive for achievements, they run, as they say, “in front of the locomotive,” they themselves drive themselves into tight time frames and do not allow themselves to deviate from their goals. They need stressful, fast paced, competitive and challenging work. They are quick-tempered, often hostile towards others, but they successfully hide it. Their aggressiveness is expressed through competition, especially at work. If they feel that subordinates or colleagues are working too slowly, they do not hide their impatience or anger. Type A people are constantly stressed, stress is their normal state. Even when they work in a relatively calm environment, their own stress remains a defining feature of their personality. They are usually extroverts with strong self-esteem; They go headlong into work and feel a great need for achievement and power.

In contrast to such people, personalities with type B orientation are characterized by a good-natured and cheerful disposition, are less prone to competition in everyday affairs. They are more tolerant and relaxed than people with orientation A, listen to the interlocutor more attentively, try to express their thoughts more accurately in a conversation. They can be as ambitious as Type A people, but they have some other personality traits. They are less susceptible to industrial and household stresses, and suffer less from their harmful consequences, although they work just as hard and in an equally stressful environment.

People of these two types respond differently to chronic stress, which is largely independent of them. For example, a Type A person will struggle to reverse an unfavorable situation, and if he fails, frustration will ensue and he will lay down his arms. Under similar circumstances, a Type B person will not back down and will try to act as efficiently as possible.

The results of studies of the personality traits of individuals belonging to types A and B suggest the existence of a direct relationship between behavior corresponding to type A and vascular diseases, depression, and such manifestations as anger and hostility.

Achievement orientation Is another personality trait that allows one to predict some patterns of individual behavior. Research on this characteristic has centered around the need to achieve results. A person with a high need for achievement is constantly overwhelmed by the desire to complete the task even better. He is focused on overcoming obstacles, while he wants to feel that his success (or failure) is the result of his own efforts. He consciously or unconsciously chooses tasks of intermediate difficulty. If the task is very easy, they do not perceive it as a challenge. An employee with a high achievement orientation does not get satisfaction from performing tasks that do not test their professionalism and abilities. Likewise, he avoids tasks that are overly difficult and the likelihood of success is too low. In this situation, even if successful, he will not get pleasure, believing that there is more luck here than his efforts and abilities. We can say that such a person is more willing to take on tasks that have an approximately fifty percent probability of success. If a manager is looking for a performer for challenging tasks that present a test of skill and ability that require a responsible attitude and exertion, employees with a high achievement orientation may be most suitable.

Risk appetite - a personality trait, expressed in a constant desire to use the opening opportunities. Research shows that risk appetite is linked to organizational decision-making. For example, managers with a high risk appetite spend less time and use little information when making decisions. Interestingly, the lack of information and time does not affect the quality of these decisions: their accuracy and validity are on the same level as those of managers who take a long time to weigh and reflect on their actions.

Traditionally and justifiably, it is believed that the manager should avoid risky decisions. However, there are not only individual differences in the propensity to take risks, but also significant differences in the requirements for this personality trait of a manager when solving specific management problems.

Dogmatism - an individual characteristic, reflecting the absence of doubts about one's correctness and the inability to rethink or re-evaluate what is already known and done. Research shows that managers with high levels of dogmatism are always confident in the correctness of their decisions, are often opponents and critics of any organizational development programs.

Self-monitoring. By observing individual workers in the workplace, it is often sufficient to simply determine their style of work and the type of personality to which they belong. In different situations, they operate within the framework of certain rules. Individuals, however, cannot be attributed to a specific type, or their behavior changes depending on a particular situation. An explanation of why the behavior of some people strictly fits into the framework of this or that type of behavior, while others does not, gives the concept self-monitoring (self-government, self-regulation, self-control).

Self-monitoring is the ability of a person to understand and correctly assess the environment in order to develop a line of behavior. Individuals with a high level of self-monitoring adequately and fully assess the environment and choose the most appropriate line of behavior. The result is their constantly changing behavior depending on the specific situation. The behavior of a person with a low level of self-monitoring depends mainly on his own internal state and is quite stable and predictable regardless of the situation. Some interesting examples of observing the behavior of people with high and low levels of self-monitoring in the work environment indicate that people with high levels of self-monitoring often become leaders and learn the art of management much faster than their peers with low levels of self-monitoring. In addition, managers with a high level of self-monitoring are more active in perceiving different cultures of behavior.

Thus, in a changing situation that requires a person to constantly be able to navigate the environment, only people with a high level of self-monitoring can take on the challenge of a dynamic and increasingly complex external environment.

In this regard, it would be advisable to consider the process of managing the organization, taking into account national characteristics.

2.2. National organization management

Experts are increasingly expressing the opinion that the use in practice of knowledge in the field of national characteristics of management allows you to obtain additional economic and social effect. Reasonable use of the accumulated management experience, taking into account the characteristics of a given country, can significantly improve economic indicators work of enterprises, to ensure their stable position, to successfully develop business in the face of increasing international competition in the market for goods and services. On the contrary, an underestimation of the national characteristics of management may be accompanied by the emergence of barriers at the level of interaction and communication, an increase in staff turnover, and the emergence of unjustified conflicts among representatives of various countries working in foreign companies or joint ventures.

Particular interest in this problem was manifested when a wave of creation of foreign and joint ventures.

Initially, the initiative for research in the field of national characteristics of behavior and the specifics of management in Russia came from foreigners. The lack of reliable and complete information about the peculiarities of the mentality and the established traditions of management in our country led to unfounded and often erroneous decisions in the field of selection and placement of personnel, staff motivation, training and development, conflict resolution, management business negotiations, creating a favorable psychological climate in the team.

In recent years, there has also been an increase in attention to the national characteristics of management among Russian specialists. This is due to the objective need for fruitful cooperation with foreign partners. Russian business I have already faced a number of problems that could have been avoided if the organization of joint ventures between Russian and foreign capital had been preceded by a serious preparation of Russians in this area. Among the studies carried out by Russian experts in the field of national characteristics of behavior and management, the results of studies of the contradictions in the interaction of corporate and national culture, the specifics of business negotiations, the specifics of non-verbal forms of communication in various countries are of greatest interest. The labor and economic ethics of the peoples of Russia has, as you know, specific features that speak of the ambiguity of the attitude towards entrepreneurship and the desire for success, so that the direct borrowing of Western models of management in russian practice hardly feasible. Moreover, these features were deformed by the experience of the Soviet period russian historywhen a style of behavior was imposed on society, which constrained entrepreneurial activity.

The traditional Russian qualities - collectivism, unselfishness, the desire to help one's neighbor, "universal responsiveness", sacrifice - constitute the key elements of a new morality, devoid of "economic egoism", based on the principles of mutual assistance, cooperation and trust. They are the backbone of our competitive advantage in the modern world.

Below is a generalized analysis of the impact of basic socio-cultural values \u200b\u200bon the theory and practice of personnel management in Russia.

Research results based on the use of expert assessments managers and specialists russian enterprises and organizations have shown that Russia can be attributed to the group of countries with predominantly collectivist inclinations. Workers often expect their organization to take care of and patronize them if they find themselves in a difficult situation, whereas in individualist countries it is more common to rely more on their own efforts in such situations. For many Russians, belonging to a group, a certain social stratum, is a rather strong motivating factor, sometimes no less significant than material reward. The analysis also showed that there is a fairly high power distance in Russia. Countries with a high distance recognize significant differences in the behavior of people in the organization, depending on their status and position. Workers are generally expected to have special reverence for their leaders, and subordinates usually show this. Ranks and status carry a lot of weight. For negotiations in such countries, foreign organizations prefer to send representatives whose status is at least not lower than that of the representatives of the opposite side.

The desire to control the situation and minimize risk in the economic and social life society is also an essential feature of the Russian mentality. This can be confirmed, for example, at all times proclaimed a comprehensive policy of supporting the least protected and socially vulnerable groups of the population, a line on the redistribution of funds and incomes between efficiently operating enterprises and those who did not work very successfully, and equalizing trends in wages and employment.
In countries where the desire to minimize risk is clearly expressed, special mechanisms are usually developed to minimize the risk, for example, many formal rules and procedures governing behavior. In such countries, intolerance to non-standard solutions and approaches, forms of behavior that differ from the generally accepted ones may appear. Populations in these countries tend to exhibit relatively low levels of labor mobility, and lifelong employment is a widespread practice.
The results of the analysis made it possible to formulate a number of fundamental provisions concerning the national characteristics of behavior in Russia. Among them:

Significant differentiation of the socio-cultural values \u200b\u200bof the urban and rural population (this difference exists in other countries, although it is not as clearly expressed as in Russia).

Differences in the value system of those who started active working life before and after perestroika.

Deep historical roots of the Russian mentality, extremely contradictory character.

So, for example, the overwhelming majority of the interviewed leaders and specialists attributed Russia to the number of countries that strive, using strict regulations, numerous laws and formal rules, to control the development of the situation in society, in each specific organization... At the same time, it was justly noted that many enterprises and organizations, as well as individual employees, have a disrespectful attitude towards laws and rules, ignoring them, and sometimes deliberate violation of these rules.

Moreover, some managers noted that one of the most important conditions for successful work is just the ability to bypass the statutory norms, regulations and work rules.

Therefore, in the next paragraph I would like to dwell on the peculiarities of the Russian mentality and organizational behavior of Russians.

2.3. Features of the mentality and organizational behavior of Russians

Taking into account national specifics, manifested in the stereotypes of thinking and behavior of people, is an important component of effective management. The word “mentality” has become very popular in the vocabulary of Russians in recent years. It is used very often, although not always meaningfully. In this regard, we recall that mentality Is a certain program, or pattern, code of thinking and behavior (activity) of individuals, groups and social communities (nations). It was formed as a memory of the past and is realized by people in various spheres - from production and management to family and household relations and leisure.

On the one hand, the onset of the information era objectively equalizes the chances of all earthlings, gradually erasing ethnic, gender (sex-role), age and other differences. Modern business is becoming more and more supranational, global and universal, i.e. ignoring any deviations from the general rules of the game. On the other hand, we observe the desire of individual nations and peoples, social communities and groups, especially small ones, to protect themselves from economic, social, spiritual influences from outside and “enslavement” from other countries and cultures. They want to impede the assimilation process and preserve their identity, uniqueness.

In modern Russia, both trends are clearly visible. Some ethnic groups and nationalities (say, the Far North or the Far East) are on the verge of complete extinction or are rapidly degrading, failing to adapt to market conditions. And the general demographic situation in the country is catastrophic: the population is decreasing by 700-800 thousand people annually.

Public consciousness and the characteristics, values \u200b\u200band beliefs of Russians have been formed throughout our history. Geographical, economic, political, military, religious and other factors play a significant role in this process. According to culturologist R.D. Lewis, who has studied hundreds of national and regional cultures, Russians have the following features:

Collectivism;

Perseverance;

Pessimism.

Reflecting on the national characteristics of Russians, a well-known specialist in the field of personnel management A.I. Kochetkova added a number of "positive" and "negative" qualities to this list. The first group included: warmth and innate friendliness, ease of communication, patience, caution, perseverance. In the second, passivity (apathy), corruption, disdain for laws, frankness only in private with each other, distrust of official news and trust in rumors - qualities that have been formed under the influence of an authoritarian regime for many centuries.

The system of “pair” classification of the traits of the Russian mentality proposed by M.A. Kartav and A.N. Nemakhin (see Appendix 1) and the author's concept of the main models of financial and labor relations (see Appendix 2).

In addition to special scientific developments, the most important source of knowledge of the mentality of any nation is the observation and analysis of the smallest details of people's daily life, the organization of their work, life and recreation. For example, let's take a curious judgment about Russians. Former coach of the football team "Spartak" (Moscow), the Italian Nevio Scala, once said that it is easier to teach our players technique and tactics than to make them come on time to a joint breakfast and not in slippers shod on socks. Commenting on this statement, footballer Vadim Evseev in an interview with the correspondents of the weekly "Argumenty i Fakty" answered irritably: “You must understand that the country has been a democracy for 15 years. We have forgotten how to walk. Here, roughly speaking, do whatever you want. And just imagine: some Italian comes (! - E.P.) and begins to send us back to the Union times. It finishes me off. We all eat together. Walk together. Something else there. There is no sense in this. If the coach tells us something in this spirit now, I am sure that half of them will not do it. And no amount of fines will help. "

Chapter 3. The influence of national mentality on the organizational behavior of the organization's personnel

3.1. The influence of national culture on the organizational behavior of an employee

One of the most difficult questions in the study of organizational behavior is the question of the degree of influence of national culture on the individual behavior of an employee and, as a consequence, the question of whether it is necessary to change behavior when dealing with another culture.

National cultures influence most aspects of individual organizational behavior, including how we see people from other cultures. People who are influenced by the culture of their country and do not have contact with the cultures of other countries tend to take an ethnocentric, or parochial, point of view, and all contacts with other cultures are considered from the position of their own culture and evaluated accordingly. This can lead to a very narrow view of the world with negative attitudes towards other cultures and affect behavior, as the individual develops prejudices. In practice, the styles of learning in different cultures can be very different.

3.2. The specifics of the organizational culture associated with national characteristics

National culture determines how people fulfill different roles in the life of a given society. Culture can be viewed at three levels of interaction: national culture - world culture, culture of one group - culture of another group, individual culture - national culture.

Cultures are neither good nor bad - they are different. The answer to the question about the peculiarities of national cultures is given by various models:

3.2.1. Hofsteed's model.

This model uses five variables:

Power distance;

Individualism;

Masculinity and femininity;

Striving to avoid uncertainty;

Long term orientation.

Power distance is understood as the degree of inequality between people, which the population of a given country considers acceptable or normal. At the same time, a low degree is characterized by relative equality in society, and a high degree is characterized by inequality.

Individualism is characterized by the degree to which people in a given country prefer to act as individuals rather than members of any group. A high degree assumes that a person is responsible for his own actions. Low degree of individualism - collectivism.

Masculinity and femininity reflect the attitude of representatives of a given culture to such concepts as perseverance and self-confidence, a high level of quality of work, success and competition, which are associated with the role of a man, and such concepts as life comforts, warm personal relationships, caring for the weak and solidarity. which are associated with the female role.

Avoiding uncertainty can be considered the degree to which people in a given country have a preference for structured situations. These are situations with clear and precise rules of behavior, which can be formalized, and can be supported by traditions.

In countries with a high degree of ambition avoidance, people tend to be anxious and anxious, and to be hectic at work. In such countries, everything new is perceived as a threat, in the opposite case (this is a low degree), everything new causes cognitive curiosity.

Long-term orientation (attention is focused on the future) manifests itself in the desire to save and accumulate, perseverance and perseverance in achieving goals. A short-term orientation (towards the past and the present) is manifested in respect for traditions and heritage, the fulfillment of social obligations.

3.2.2. Lane and Distefano's model.

This model is based on six variables, defined as the problems that a society faces throughout its development. It has been established that different societies have dealt with these problems in different ways. In the model, various ways of solving problems are called "variations in value orientations." The six variables of the model under consideration include:

Man's relationship to nature;

Time orientation;

Ideas about human nature;

Activity orientation;

Relationship between people;

Orientation in space.

The model assumes that each of these variables and its "national" variety have a direct relationship with certain characteristics and their variations within the organizational culture prevailing in a given society.

In an organization, to determine value orientations in relation to human nature, according to the model, the following characteristics can be used: control system, management style, organizational climate. They have variations for every organizational culture.

3.2.3. Lewis classification.

According to Lewis, representatives of several hundred countries of the world can be roughly divided into three groups:

1.monoactive, task-oriented, clearly planning their activities;

2. polyactive, people-oriented, talkative and sociable;

3. reactive, introverted, respect-oriented.

Monoactive peoples do in certain period one thing, focusing on it and doing it on a pre-arranged schedule. They believe that with such an organization of work, they will be able to act more efficiently and will have time to do more.

Polyactive people believe that it is their mode of action that is most productive. They don't really care about schedules and punctuality. They pretend to comply with them. Especially if monoactive partners insist on it, but they believe that reality is more important than a routine set by a person.

№	Peoples	Note
1	Germans, Swiss	Highest monoactivity
2	Americans (WASP - White Anglo-Saxon Protestants)
3	Scandinavians, Austrians
4	British, Canadians, New Zealanders
5	Australians, South Africans
6	Japanese
7	Danes, Belgians
8	American subcultures (Jews, Italians, Poles, etc.)
9	French people
10	Czechs, Slovaks, Croats, Hungarians
11	Inhabitants of Northern Italy (Milan, Turin, Genoa)
12	Chileans
13	Russians and other Slavs
14	Portuguese
15	Polynesians
16	Spaniards, Italians - Southerners, Mediterranean peoples
17	Indians, Pakistanis
18	Hispanics, Arabs, Africans	Highest polyactivity

Table 1 - Monoactive and polyactive peoples

Representatives of reactive or listening cultures rarely initiate action or discussion, preferring to first listen and find out the position of others, then respond to it and formulate their own. The carriers of the reactive culture include the Japanese, Chinese and Finns. They do not trust verbosity, they are experts in non-verbal communication. In reactive cultures, the preferred mode of communication is the monologue-pause-reflection-monologue sequence. In mono- and polyactive cultures, the way of communication is dialogue.

A certain systematization of numerous variables helps to understand the variety of approaches to the analysis of national culture. In this case, the following elements are distinguished:

Family system - family relationships and the way people reproduce, educate and introduce their children into society. In the family, children for the first time develop behavioral patterns that they need to fulfill in the future various roles in the organization (for example, relationships by status, age, gender, etc.);

The education system is how young and new members of society are provided with information, knowledge, skills and values;

Economic system - a set of ways in which society produces and distributes goods and services. At the same time, there are group, collective and individual approaches;

The political system is what is primarily used to maintain order and existing power. These may be attributes of a tribal and even clan approach, or there may be elements of developed democracy;

A religious system is an intangible, spiritual means of providing meaning and motivation for people's actions. This system determines the morality and prevailing values \u200b\u200bin society, which are guided by functioning organizations;

Socialization system - a network and principles of social grouping created by people in a given society;

The health system is the way in which culture prevents and heals disease and cares for the victims of disasters and incidents;

The recreation system is a way of socializing people and using their free time. Some cultures pay significant attention to sports, the development of various types of outdoor activities. In a number of cultures, it is customary to devote rest to folk dancing and singing, visiting spectacles.

All of these components have a direct impact on the formation of a specific national culture, which is most often taken into account when forming the culture of an organization operating in a given society.

Based on a serious and comprehensive analysis, Lewis draws the following conclusions about those features that are inherent in Russians.

According to Lewis, the main factors that shaped Russian values \u200b\u200band fundamental beliefs are the vast expanses of Russia and its harsh climate.

They have formed such characteristics as:

Collectivism;

Suspiciousness towards foreigners;

The habit of uneven pace of work;

Passivity (apathy);

Corruption;

Disregard for laws;

The frankness is only in private with each other;

Mistrust of official news and trust of rumors.

The advantages of Russians include warmth and innate friendliness, ease of communication, patience, caution, perseverance. If we add to these features the high degree of adaptation to the external environment characteristic of Russians and a very high (on average) level of education, then we get a fairly dynamic culture, whose representatives are able to make a very serious contribution to transforming the culture of modern business.

From all of the above, it follows that Russians are capable of comprehensive analysis, systemic perception of both the world in general and the business environment in particular. At the same time, their additional advantage over foreign competitors is their relative youth, and hence the aggressiveness of their business culture.

Conclusion

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