Formation of a development strategy for the organization's personnel. Course student “Development of a strategy for professional development of personnel. if the manager wants to get positive results from the development of personnel, he should clearly define what parameters are needed
1. Evolution of forms of value and the emergence of money
Money plays a very important role in our life. In fact, this is one of the most remarkable inventions of mankind. Not representing in themselves any significant value, they serve as a measure of the value of all things around us. “Money is the only commodity that cannot be used otherwise than to get rid of it. They will not feed you, provide shelter or entertain you until you spend or invest them. People will do almost everything for money, and money will do almost everything for people. Money is a captivating, repetitive, mask-changing puzzle. "
Money originates from the commodity. They are inextricably linked with the commodity, as well as with commodity production and exchange. A commodity is any product of human labor that is not intended for direct use by the manufacturer himself, but for exchange for other products or for sale. The properties of a commodity, expressed in the ability to satisfy certain human needs, are called use value. It is different for each product. An object that has no use value is not a commodity, since no one needs a useless thing.
In the early stages of human development, commodity production was random. Everything that was produced on the farm was produced for internal needs. Only occasionally there was a surplus of production, which was used for exchange. Therefore, determining the value of a few goods was relatively easy. Subsequently, the improvement of tools and methods of production caused an expansion of the range of products. The number of goods began to grow, and the exchange process began to become more complicated. The need to endlessly equate the most diverse objects with each other actually excluded the possibility of the normal functioning of markets. It was necessary to find such a product with which it would be possible to determine the value of any things, regardless of their purpose and value. This caused the separation of certain products from the mass of the market. These products, in contrast to all others, became universal equivalents of value, that is, they could be exchanged for any other commodity. This is how the "commodity of goods" appeared, that is, money. The evolution of exchange can be represented in the form of the following form change scheme
1. Simple (random) form of value - exchange of goods for goods;
2. Full (expanded) form of value - the exchange of one product for a number of products;
3. The universal form of value - the exchange of all goods (on the scale of a given market) for one good;
4. Monetary form of value - the exchange of all goods for money.
It was at the last stage that money came into being. They arose spontaneously from exchange, and not by agreement of the parties. Different goods played the role of money, but turned out to be more suitable precious metals - silver and gold.
Money by its origin is a commodity. Standing out from the general mass of commodities, they retain the commodity nature and have the same two properties as any other commodity: they have a use value (for example, gold in the form of money can be used for decoration and satisfy a person's aesthetic need) and value, since for the production of goods - money (gold) spent a certain amount of social labor.
Money has resolved the contradiction of commodity production: between use value and value. With the advent of money, the commodity world split into two parts: one commodity - money and all other commodities. Use-value is concentrated on the side of all goods, and their value is on the side of money. The commodities participating in the exchange act as use values. Money becomes the expression of these use values.
Evolution of monetary forms.
The commodity - money had to, first of all, meet two basic requirements:
1. Be common enough (but not overly);
2. Possess a relatively high and constant value, provided by the labor intensity of their production.
Thus, we see that the establishment of the suitability of an object to fulfill the role of money followed from objective circumstances beyond the control of people. That is why the attempt of the Roman emperor Gaius Julius Caesar Caligula (37-41) to declare seashells as money failed.
Different peoples in different periods used a variety of goods as money. These goods were supposed to be of recognized value in the area.
So, in the Middle Ages in Western Europe pepper was often used as money: individual levies were calculated in weight quantities of pepper. Hence the mocking nickname of very rich people - "bag of pepper". In the XII-XIII centuries. in Novgorod customs duties pepper was also taken from transit goods.
Grodno nobleman A.K.Bulatovich, who made 4 trips to Ethiopia (1896-1911), in his diaries reports that bars of salt Ryabtsevich V.N. served as the monetary unit in Central and South Ethiopia. What the coins tell about. - Mn., 1978. - S. 13 ..
On one of the Caroline Islands - Yap Island - the so-called. Fairies. This money is very valuable: it is made from aragonite, mined on the island of Pulau, which is located about 480 km. from Yap. Moreover, the diameter of the fairy (in shape they are similar to European millstones) can reach several meters, and the weight is 1 ton. Dimensions and weight determine the calculation method. After the transaction, the seller marks the fairy under open air, with your sign and go home: it is very difficult to steal such a currency.
The above three examples are no exception. Here is a short list of the various items that various nations have in the form of money:
1. In Iceland before the XV century. - a fish;
2.In Kievan Rus, Scandinavia, Western Europe in the early Middle Ages - fur;
3. In Mongolia before the XX century. - a mixture of tea leaves and some wild plants, soaked in calf's blood and pressed into bricks The weight of this monetary unit was approx. 1.5 kg.;
4. In China before the XIX century. - jade;
5. In India before the XX century. - pearls;
6. On the island of Borneo until the XX century. - cow skulls;
7. On the island of New Guinea to our days - the so-called. "Pig money" Tusks and tails of pigs, teeth of dogs, kangaroos and dolphins, glass beads, shells and feathers of parrots, strung on a cord;
8. On the Solomon Islands until the XX century. - human skulls;
9. In the Caroline Islands to the present day - whale teeth and woven men's belts;
10. Among the Indian tribes of North America before the XIX century. - "wampum" Leather belt with shells sewn on it .;
11. In Nicaragua until the 19th century. - bags of cocoa beans.
However, it is quite obvious that even such common things are not very convenient. More convenient and reliable money was needed, which would have the following qualities:
1. Higher and unchanged value, expressed in a certain labor intensity of its production;
2. Limited, in comparison with other goods, use value;
3. Compactness (rather significant cost in a small volume, and as a consequence - convenience for long-distance transportation);
4. The ability to split into small parts and combine in any quantity while fully preserving its qualities;
5. Physical durability.
Only metals, especially noble ones, met all these requirements to an excellent degree. That is why they, in the end, became "leading" in the role of money and their personification in general. The transition to the use of metals as money marked the beginning of the fourth stage in the development of exchange (the phase of monetary value).
In the beginning, metallic money appeared in the form of shapeless ingots or a variety of products. However, gradually, with the development of the economy, internal and external markets, there is a transition to the unification of metallic money and the minting of coins of a single sample. The spread and consolidation of metallic money was accompanied by the formation of the following main functions:
1. Measures of value, expressed in the ability to value any product;
2. Means of circulation, which manifests itself as an intermediary in the exchange of one product for another;
3. Means of accumulation, that is, the formation of cash reserves, temporarily not participating in circulation;
4. Means of payment, consisting in the ability to enter into circulation regardless of the circulation of goods (usury, payment of taxes, etc.);
5. World money (free circulation of money from precious metals beyond their national borders).
Money as the universal equivalent measures the value of all commodities. But it is not money that makes commodities comparable, but the amount of socially necessary labor expended; commensuration of their cost is possible, since money itself has it. In metal circulation, this function was performed by real money (gold and silver), but they expressed the value of goods ideally, i.e. mentally represented money.
At the stage of the formation of commodity relations, money played the role of a means that equates other goods with money, making them commensurable not just as products of human labor, but as parts of the same monetary material - gold or silver. As a result, the goods began to relate to each other in constant proportion, i.e. the price scale arose as a certain weight of gold and silver, fixed as a unit of measurement. To compare prices in the course of the development of exchange relations, the states began to establish fixed price scales, i.e. quantitatively gold and silver, adopted in the country as a monetary unit. For example, in the USA, by the act on the gold standard for the dollar in 1900, 1.50463 of pure gold was adopted, but with further devaluations of the dollar, the gold content in it decreased three times: in 1934 - to 0.889, in December 1971 - - up to 0.818 and in February 1973 - up to 0.737
With the establishment of the domination of non-exchangeable credit money, the scale of prices has undergone significant changes. The state establishes:
1. the name of the monetary unit, the procedure for its issue and withdrawal, as well as its "denomination";
2. the procedure for issuing a smaller monetary unit, made, as a rule, of cheap metals, determining its ratio to the basic monetary unit;
3. rules for the circulation of cash and non-cash money;
4. the exchange rate of the national currency against foreign ones, based on the demand of its currency, and publishes it in the official press.
2. Market, its essence and structure
In the process of the formation and development of commodity-money relations, such an important institutionally organized and system-forming element is formed as the market. Therefore, the reasons for the emergence of commodity-money relations, to a certain extent, explain the formation and formation of commodity circulation and the market. At the same time, the market as an independent phenomenon is a complex entity that has its own structure, specific conditions of functioning and development. Since the emergence of the market, various directions and schools of economic thought have interpreted its essence ambiguously.
The first attempt to give a scientific interpretation of the market through the determination of its location was made by the French economist O. Cournot. In his opinion, this is any area where the relationship between buyers and sellers is so free that prices for the same goods tend to equalize easily and quickly. The English economist A. Marshall argued that the more perfect the market, the stronger the tendency to pay the same price for the same thing at all points at the same time.
The two definitions focus on the tendency of the market to level out prices and thus highlight its important function. At the same time, the market should not be limited only to the sphere of commodity exchange, since the market also provides for money circulation, including circulation valuable papers... In modern political economy, in accordance with the subject of this science, when defining the essence of the market, the characteristics of the corresponding system of economic relations are brought to the fore. An attempt is also made to connect the essence of the market with its specific functions, for example, the formation of supply and demand, prices for goods. To reveal the essence of the market, it is necessary to find out who are the main actors and how do relationships arise and develop between them?
In summary, the essence modern market can be defined as a set of economic relations between households, different types firms and organizations and the state (including supranational bodies) acting as sellers or buyers in relation to the sale of goods and services in the sphere of circulation, as well as the mechanism for the implementation of these relations in accordance with the laws of commodity production and money circulation.
The essence of the market is revealed in its main functions. These include:
-- pricing - determination of the market value of goods and services and prices for their sale;
-- reproductive - ensuring the continuity of the reproduction process (in particular, the relationship between production and consumption), the formation of the integrity of the national economic system and its links with other national economies on the scale of the world economy;
-- stimulating - encouraging producers of goods and services to reduce
individual costs in comparison with socially necessary, increasing the public utility of goods and services, their quality and consumer properties;
-- regulating - influencing the relationship between different
spheres and sectors of the economy, bringing the "solvent
supply and demand, accumulation and consumption, other proportions;
-- controlling the rationality of production by the price level;
-- competitive - forming the competitiveness relationship between producers of goods and services within individual countries and the world economy;
-- sanitizing- ensuring the cleansing of the economic system from ineffective and non-viable enterprises through the mechanism of competition. This excludes or significantly reduces the likelihood of production as an end in itself, and hence the costly nature of the economy; - informational and corrective, with which you can quickly make changes to plans economic activity.
Market structure. Market structure is a collection of individuallocal markets within the boundaries of the national economy of the country (internal market),and also - national markets within the world economy and its individualregions, their relationship and interaction between them... Distinguish: markets for tools, natural resources, objects of labor, land, labor, labor, technology, information, goods, real estate, services, intellectual property, financial resources, etc. Most of them can function as local markets. In turn, the market for goods is subdivided into wholesale and consumer markets; intellectual property market - to the market of patents, licenses, know-how, software programs, etc .; financial - to the markets of investments (long-term loans), money (short-term loans), currency, securities, gold. Depending on the degree of monopolization, a distinction is made between monopolized and oligopolistic markets. In a monopolized market, one or two producers (sellers) can concentrate in their hands the entire mass of manufactured products, the entire totality of a certain type of goods and dictate prices in the market. In a non-monopolized market, there are many sellers, each of whom is not individually able to influence the pricing process. In an oligopolistic market, several sellers of certain goods or services can agree among themselves (in writing or orally) on the division of market segments and influence on the price level, that is, to exercise a group monopoly. The common feature of monopolized and regulated markets is their highly organized nature. The difference between these types of markets lies in the fact that the first one covers completely the monopolized sector of the economy and only partially the non-monopolized one, and the regulated one covers the entire economy in the unity of all its sectors, including the state one, although each of them does not have the same degree. In addition, a monopoly or an oligopoly acts as a conjunctural entity in a monopolized market, while the subject of a regulated one is the state and supranational bodies (EU, OPEC, etc.).
Finally, the goal of regulating a monopolized market is to appropriate monopoly high profits, and the goal of state regulation is to stabilize the economic system, harmonize private, collective and public interests, solve national problems, and facilitate the process of capital accumulation. In addition, the organizational and functional structure of the market is distinguished, which includes contract system purchases at stock exchanges, fairs, exhibitions and other intermediary structures for the sale of goods; direct communication between manufacturers and sales organizations; marketing, advertising, etc.
Complex direct and indirect links are established between different types of markets, their subjects, which are regulated by the economic laws of the development and functioning of the modern market.
The market system is a single set of many markets for various purposes. This combination was formed under the influence of a number of factors. First, in the conditions of industrial and post-industrial production, the market space has expanded many times in the following directions: natural production has become a commodity economy on a large scale; work force the bulk of the workers became the subject of sale and purchase; the sphere of paid spiritual, goods and services rapidly developed; the final results of scientific research (scientific and experimental design) have become a marketable product. Secondly, modern production creates a huge variety of useful goods that satisfy the needs of a comprehensively developed person.
Thirdly, increased in the second half of the XX century. the social division of labor has gone beyond production and embraced the market sphere. In it, specialized markets have arisen that promote special goods and services to their consumers.
Fourth, broad development joint stock companies led to the fact that shares and other securities are sold on a special securities market.
Finally, the accelerated growth of international economic ties required the creation of a developed foreign exchange market.
Consequently, the market that developed in the second half of this century is unthinkable without a system of division of labor in the sphere of circulation. In the latter, large types of differentiation of economic activity are manifested: general (between large industries or spheres) and private (between subsectors and types of trade enterprises) division of labor. The general breakdown of the market is clearly shown in Fig. 6.1.
Figure: 6.1. Modern market system
In the system of markets, the following large industries are quite clearly distinguished: the market for consumer products (it is subdivided into many sub-sectors that sell food and non-food goods, the housing market, etc.);
market of means of production (here material factors of production are acquired: equipment, vehicles, buildings, structures, raw materials, fuel, electricity, etc.);
service market (this includes various types of services: utilities and consumer services, financial and insurance operations, commercial, social, cultural, spiritual and other services);
labor market (for employers and employees);
market of scientific and experimental-design developments (scientific research products, ready for development in production);
loan capital market (the sphere of buying and selling temporarily free moneyused for production purposes);
securities market (stocks, bonds and other income-generating documents);
currency market (national and international institutions through which the purchase, sale, exchange of foreign currency units and monetary settlements with other states are made);
market for spiritual goods (the area of \u200b\u200bsale and purchase of products of intellectual activity of scientists, writers, artists, etc.).
LIST OF USED LITERATURE:
1. Andreev B.F. Systemic course of economic theory. Microeconomics. Macroeconomics. Tutorial... / Ed. V.A.Petrischeva. - SPb .: Lenizdat, 1998.
2. Matyukhin G.G. Credit money problems under capitalism. - M .: Nauka, 1977.
3. General theory of money and credit. / Edited by E.F. Zhukov. - M: UNITY, 2000.
4. Ryabtsevich VN What Coins Tell About. Ed. Doctor of Historical Sciences A.P. Ignatenko. - 2nd ed., Rev. and add. - Mn .: Nar. asveta, 1978
5. Finance, money circulation and credit. Textbook / Ed. N.F. Samsonov. - M .: INFRA, 2001.
6. Economy. Textbook. allowance / Edited by MI Plotnitsky. - M .: New knowledge, 2001.
7. Borisov EF, Volkov FM "Fundamentals of economic theory". - M .: ed. " graduate School", 1993.
8. Lipshits I. V. "Introduction to Economics and Business (Economics for Economists)". - M .: ed. Vita-press, 1997.
9. Raizberg BA "Market economics". - LLP Editorial Office of the magazine "Business Life". - M., 1993.
10. Ruzavin G. I. "Fundamentals of a market economy". - M .: ed. UNITY, 1996.
Social relations that arise between people in the process of production and sale of goods, i.e. items for sale. Commodity-money relations express property relations, extending to private and personal property, which are the elements of social production - workers and their labor force, means of production and consumer goods.
Under a slave-owning socio-economic formation, commodity-money relations encompass all elements of production, including the worker-slave - his life, personality and labor. With the development of society, the sphere of production, covered by commodity-money relations, shrinks. Under socialism, commodity-money relations apply only to consumer goods that are in personal use. Under communism, the entire sphere of social production becomes non-commodity and commodity-money relations are completely eliminated. Commodity-money relations in all pre-capitalist formations played a progressive role, contributing to the development of productive forces. Under capitalism, they played a progressive role in its first stage. At its last stage, imperialism, commodity-money relations began to play an exclusively reactionary role, being a mechanism for enslaving peoples and countries by developed capitalist countries and transnational corporations and banks.
Content
Introduction …………………………………………………………………………… 3
- The emergence and development of commodity-money relations ................... 5
1.1 Commodity-money relations in Russia ………………………… ... 5
- 2. Commodity-money relations ………………………………………… .21
- The role of commodity-money relations in the modern period ……… .. 24
Commodity and money exchange ……………………………………………… 38
Some aspects of commodity-money relations ………………… .40
- 5.1 The emergence of money, their essence and functions. ………………… ..40
- 5.2 Evolution of the product in modern conditions ……………………… .49
References …………………………………………………………… .57
Introduction
The modern world is a world of comprehensive and omnipotent commodity-money relations. They permeate the inner life of any state and its activities in the international arena. In the process of reproduction at different levels, starting with the enterprise and ending with the national economy as a whole, funds are formed. At the same time, it does not matter in what form the money appears: in the form of cash paper signs, roofing felts in the form of credit cards, or in the amounts on bank accounts generally outside of any form.
The system of education and use of funds of monetary resources involved in ensuring the process of reproduction is the finances of society. And the totality of economic relations that arise between the state, enterprises and organizations, industries, territories and individual citizens in connection with the movement of monetary funds, forms financial relations.
Finance is a historical category. They appeared simultaneously with the emergence of the state with the stratification of society into classes. The term finance originated in the 13th - 15th centuries in the commercial cities of Italy and denoted any cash payment. In the future, the term received international distribution and began to be used as a concept associated with the system of monetary relations between the population and the state regarding the formation of state funds of funds. Thus, this term reflected, first, monetary relations between two subjects, that is, money acted as the material basis for the existence and functioning of finance (where there is no money, there can be no finance); secondly, the subjects had different rights in the process of these: one of them (the state) had special powers; thirdly, in the process of these relations, a nationwide fund of funds was formed - the budget (therefore, we can say that these relations were of a fund nature); fourthly, the regular flow of funds to the budget could not be ensured without giving taxes, fees and other payments of a state-compulsory nature, which was achieved through the legal rule-making activity of the state, the creation of an appropriate financial apparatus.
These are the main features of finance. According to them, it is possible to unmistakably distinguish finance from the entire totality of monetary relations. For example, monetary relations that arise between citizens and various trade cannot be attributed to finance, since the state here regulates monetary relations using the civil law method, for which a characteristic feature is the equality of the subjects united by these relations.
Thus, finance is always a money relationship, but not any money relationship is always a financial relationship.
Based on the foregoing, a general definition of finance can be formulated.
Finance is an economic relationship associated with the formation, distribution and use of centralized and decentralized funds of funds in order to fulfill the functions and tasks of the state and to ensure the conditions of the considered reproduction.
The purpose of this work is to get acquainted with the meaning of commodity-money relations.
Objectives: 1. To study the literature related to this topic.
2. Identification of some aspects of commodity-money relations.
- 3. Expansion and consolidation of the studied material.
- 4. Analyze the collected material.
- 1. The emergence and development of commodity-money relations.
- 1.1 Commodity-money relations in Russia.
The brand name, which has become popular with consumers and enjoys the confidence of business partners, brings the entrepreneur not only a lot of dividends, but also deserved respect in society and recognition of his merits. Using company name also performs an essential information function, since it brings to the attention of third parties data on the affiliation, type and organizational form of the enterprise. The trademark and service mark, which mark the products and services provided, are an active link between the manufacturer and the consumer, acting as a silent seller. Along with its distinctive function, a popular trademark evokes a certain perception of product quality in consumers. One of the important functions of a trademark is also the advertising of manufactured products, hence the second name is an advertising designation, since a trademark that has won the trust of consumers helps to promote any goods marked with this sign.
It is also known that on the world market the price of products with a trademark is on average 15-20 higher than that of anonymous products. Finally, a trademark serves to protect products on the market and is used in the fight against unfair competition. Similar functions are performed by such means of product designation as appellation of origin. Along with them, the designation of a product by the name of its place of origin acts as a guarantee of the presence in the product of special unique properties due to the place of its production. Thus, the above industrial property objects are an effective link between the producer and the consumer and act as important objects of subjective civil rights.
For the consumer, a trademark is business card, the symbol of a particular company or factory. A well-known trademark that has won success among buyers inspires confidence, is associated with a guarantee of high quality of manufactured goods. The need to distinguish goods of various types from each other with the help of signs that these goods are supplied by manufacturers or traders is not new, it arose already in ancient times. Even the ancient Romans, Greeks and Egyptians used the labels of artisans and artists, which served as indications of the origin of a product from a workshop or from a city.
In 1896, the Law on Trademarks of Factory and trade marks and brands. Trademarks were all kinds of designations put up by industrialists and traders on goods or on packaging and dishes in which they are stored, to distinguish them from the goods of other industrialists and traders. The use of a trademark was recognized as a right, but not an obligation of a person, except for cases specially established by law, branding of gold and silver products, mandatory labeling of tobacco and vodka products After the establishment of Soviet power legal protection trademarks were retained, although the attitude towards them at different stages of the country's development was different.
The legislation on trademarks was updated in 1962 when a resolution of the Council of Ministers of the USSR of May 15, 1962 On Trademarks was adopted, and on its basis the Committee for Inventions and Discoveries on June 23, 1962. The Regulations on Trademarks were approved. The main feature of the new acts was the transformation of the right to a trademark into the obligation of enterprises to have and use trademarks registered in the established manner. A significant step in the development of trademark law was the adoption on June 3, 1991.
The USSR Law On Trademarks and Service Marks, which was to come into effect on January 1, 1992. This law not only raised the level of normative regulation of relations related to trademarks and service marks, but was also developed based on the requirements of a market economy. As well as the rich experience of developed countries and the provisions of international conventions. In connection with the collapse of the Soviet Union, the Law of June 3, 1991 never came into force. However, it served as a good basis for the development by the Supreme Soviet of the Russian Federation of the Law of the Russian Federation On Trademarks, Service Marks and Appellations of Origin of Goods, which was adopted on September 23, 1992.
And it came into force on October 17, 1992. This law, for the first time in the history of Russia, introduced the protection of appellations of origin of goods that had not previously been distinguished as independent objects of industrial property. The provisions of the Law have been developed in a number of bylaws adopted by the Government of the Russian Federation and the Patent Office of the Russian Federation. A.P. Sergeev. The right to a trade name and trademark. St. Petersburg, 1995, pp. 5-9 The right to a trademark may belong to persons engaged in entrepreneurial activities, be they individuals or legal entities, and among the latter, to commercial or non-commercial organizations that carry out such activities. The regulatory framework of this institution of commercial law is the RF Law of September 23, 1992 No.
The term intellectual property has a conditional character and is used in legislation, including in Russian, because such terminology is generally accepted both in continental and common law countries. Of course, there can be no ownership right to such objects as a trademark, invention, trade name or work of science, literature and art. The object of ownership may be those material, material carriers on which the corresponding texts, graphic images are recorded, a technical solution that has become an invention is stated, etc.
The term industrial property is conditional, since it differs from the generally accepted concept of ownership of different kinds property. In addition, industrial property objects are used not only in industry, but also in agriculture, healthcare, trade, service sector. With the right to ownership of various types of property, the industrial property right is outwardly similar in that the patent holder, like the owner, has the right to own, use and dispose of an invention, trademark or industrial design, the patent itself has exchange value and therefore the patent can be traded, the patent owner has the right to be protected from violations of his powers by any person. The rights of the patent holder, as well as of the property owner, are of a monopoly nature. The differences between industrial property rights and property rights are as follows: the patent protects the rights not to property, but to the results of spiritual creativity, the rights of the patent holder are limited in time by the term of the patent.
Consumers who have appreciated the merit of goods of known origin will naturally look for them among others according to their distinctive mark. The greater the demand for this product, the greater the temptation for other traders to use the same sign, mislead the public and distract some consumers to themselves. Such an action violates the interest of the public if a product of the worst dignity is offered to it under a fake sign, and the interest of the merchant who first established the reputation of the product, but regardless of whether the product under a fake sign is worse than the real one or of equal or even superior quality.
Trademarks enable trade to accurately and clearly define the offer and guarantee the legal protection of goods. Trademarks can be the target of systematic promotional activities. Advertising, in principle, can be done without trademarks, but in this case it is anonymous and vague. Since the trademark is easy to remember, grabs the attention of consumers and inspires their confidence, it is an effective advertising medium that must be used skillfully.
Advertising designations serve to differentiate between homogeneous products of different enterprises. However, advertising of goods is not important for all enterprises, but only for those that produce consumer goods, that is, products intended for sale to the population. As for the enterprises that produce products for industrial and technical purposes, raw materials, equipment, components intended for industrial use, then for them the advertising labeling of their goods has no economic value.
The main function of a trademark is its ability to distinguish and individualize the goods of a particular manufacturer, supplier or trade enterprise. A trademark helps distinguish products from one manufacturer from similar products from another manufacturer. This is very important, since the range of manufactured goods is constantly expanding and therefore it is very difficult to navigate in them. This so-called distinctive function is the most main function trademark. It is of direct importance both for the owner of the mark and for consumers, who, according to the trademark, can choose the product of exactly the company that they prefer.
The informative function of a sign is closely related to the distinction function. It manifests itself in the fact that it contributes to bringing to the consumer information about the manufacturer of the goods, as well as about the quality of the goods. The importance of the informative function of a trademark is emphasized by V. Dozortsev, who believes. That the sign should be a continuation and variant of its corporate name, representing not just an image, but an image of the name of the enterprise or its well-known monogram. The informative function of the sign is undoubtedly one of its most important functions, and the overall value of the sign largely depends on how the sign performs this function.
Advertising of manufactured products is one of the most important functions of trademarks. Shopping ads are business information that helps shoppers choose the products they want. A well-known to the buyer a trademark that has won trust creates the product's popularity and its successful sale. Advertising should help businesses sell their products. The company's advertising activities should be focused on advertising the trademark, which is the symbol of the company.
In order to be effective in advertising, a trademark must have certain advantages so that it can be easily affixed on products and on various documents accompanying products, as well as displayed at various exhibitions, fairs, and sports competitions. A good trademark is the most effective advertising medium. The most effective is the illuminated advertising of trademarks in shops, on city streets and squares, as well as on the main buildings of enterprises. The problem of effective advertising of a trademark is very complex and most often associated with a skillful study of the psychology of the buyer. The security function arises from the exclusive monopoly right to use it, guaranteed to the owner of the trademark.
This function serves to protect manufactured products on the market, especially on the foreign market, and is used in the fight against unfair competition. Therefore, a trademark is of great importance in foreign trade. The guarantee function is manifested in the guarantee of the appropriate quality of goods. The fulfillment of this function is fully possible only with a constant improvement in the quality of goods. A trademark is one of the many means of ensuring the good name of a product and improving its quality.
The peculiarity of a trademark is that it affects the preservation of the quality of goods and its increase indirectly through the consumer. A trademark is a designation of a product with which its consumer associates the quality properties of the product known to him. A consumer who has noticed these properties or opted for them associates these properties with the trademark with which the product is equipped, and further requires this particular product, assuming that the product designated in this way has the required qualities or other properties verified by experience. Products marked with a certain brand name, known to the consumer, in the eyes of the latter, on the basis of this experience, are proven high quality products. This further arouses a guaranteed increased demand for products equipped with a trademark that do not have the expected quality, the trademark quickly loses its meaning and is depreciated.
The fact that the manufacturer supplies his products with a trademark, he takes responsibility for the quality of the products sold in relation to the consumer. A discredited trademark would cause the opposite effect - it would warn the consumer against purchasing a product with such a trademark. Ideally, it should be so that the trademark is affixed only to a high-quality product. In practice, however, things are sometimes different. The psychological function of a trademark is closely related to its advertising and guarantee functions. It consists in the fact that a well-known trademark on the market creates a conviction in the buyer that the product is of the best quality, draws his attention to this product.
If the owner of a trademark is interested in having his mark perform a psychological function, he must take care that the goods produced by him are of consistently high quality and that his trademark is well designed and effectively advertised.
The novelty of a trademark is determined on the priority date, which, in turn, is established by general rule on the day of receipt of a correctly completed application for registration of a trademark at the Patent Office of the Russian Federation. Along with these, the priority of a trademark can be established by the date of filing the first application for a trademark in a foreign country-participant of the Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property, the convention priority, if the Patent Office of the Russian Federation received the application within 6 months from that date. Thus, the essence of the requirement for novelty means that a designation declared as a trademark should not be identical or similar to trademarks already registered or applied for registration in the Russian Federation or protected by virtue of international agreements. Identical is a designation that in all its elements coincides with an already known trademark and at the same time belongs to the same class of goods, regardless of the difference in their list. A.P. Sergeev. The right to a trade name and trademark.
A designation can be considered a trademark only when it is registered in the prescribed manner. As a general rule, only from the moment of official recognition of a designation as a trademark can one speak of it as an independent object of legal protection. Such registration makes it possible to use the chosen designation for a long time without fear of any claims from other companies; however, after registration, it will be possible to prohibit other companies from using similar designations.
Refusal to register a trademark solely on the basis of its non-artistic nature will be illegal, unless the declared designation contradicts the principles of humanity and morality. Trademarks can be verbal, figurative, three-dimensional, combined and others. They represent original names or words, artistic compositions and drawings in combination with letters, numbers, words or without them, etc.
... Figurative signs include drawings on a wide variety of topics. These can be images of people, animals, plants, objects, ornaments, various geometric shapes. The success of pictorial trademarks is largely determined by their simplicity, catchiness and effectiveness in terms of advertising, the possibility of using the image on all kinds of materials, semantic load, etc.
They often come from the characteristics of the product or business. For which they are designed. If this is not possible, then it is desirable to find a symbolism that would cause certain ideas and could later become a characteristic symbol of the product. Pictorial trademarks are less effective than word marks, therefore they are used relatively rarely in international practice.
Combined trademarks can be divided into different subgroups of signs, where the verbal part of the signs prevails, in which there is a combination of verbal and figurative marks for the purpose of their joint impact, signs where the figurative part prevails.
In addition to the above types of trademarks, the legislation allows for registration and other designations of goods and services, in particular sound, light, olfactory and other designations. Currently, such marks are registered mainly in the name of foreign users, since in domestic practice they have not yet received distribution.
The sign may not have its own material value. For example, a trademark label costs as much as paper, paint, and manufacturing work. The value of a trademark arises in the course of circulation, both due to the reputation of the owner-company and due to the quality of the goods that the mark advertises to signify.
By the end of the XVIII-beginning of the XIX century. commodity-money, market relations penetrated deeply into the times of the feudal-serf formation and played an essential role in its decomposition. The basis for such a broad development of market relations was the ever-increasing division of labor, expressed in the separation of industry from agriculture, the growth of cities, crafts, industrial enterprises and centers, the growth of agricultural specialization, and similar factors.
The urban population in the first half of the 19th century. increased faster than before. If from 1630 to 1796 it increased from 2.4% (1630) to 4.1% (1796), then by 1851 it had already increased to 7.8%. In the first case, over 160-170 years, the urban population grew by 1.7%, in the second case, over 55 years, it increased by 3.7%. In absolute terms, the urban population was: in 1796 - 1301 thousand people (4.1%), in 1811 - 2765 thousand (4.4%), in 1856 - 5684 thousand (8% ).
Out of the total number of 634 cities in Russia by the beginning of the 19th century, St. Petersburg had 330 thousand people, Moscow over 200 thousand, cities with residents from 70 to 10 thousand - 35; the rest of the cities were small; 129 cities had less than 1,000 inhabitants.
But the industrial population was located not only in cities, but also in a number of villages and regions. Whole villages, and sometimes entire areas, switched to handicrafts and crafts. Manufactories were founded in many places. Such centers of industrial production as the villages of Pavlovo and Vorsma, where metallurgical products were produced, are widely known; the centers of the textile industry - Shuya and Ivanovo-Voznesensk; the center of footwear is Kimry and other areas.
Professor Arseniev in his work "Inscription of statistics" wrote that "many villages took the form of cities, being inhabited by artisan peasants." Arseniev pointed out that the number of artisans at that time was 700 thousand. Semyonov believed that 2 million people were employed in handicrafts and industry. According to Bagaley, the number of people employed in industry and trades was on the verge of the 18th and 19th centuries. up to 12%.
In connection with the development of crafts, seasonal work was widely developed. In the Yaroslavl province at the end of the 18th century. 1/3 of the male population went to work. In 1802, about 70 thousand passports were taken by otkhodniks in the Yaroslavl province. An important role was played by latrine trades in the Moscow, Vladimir, Nizhny Novgorod, Kostroma and other provinces, mainly in the central non-chernozem zone. Semenov points out that in 1848, 1849 and 1850s. the country selected 1 million annual and 2 million short-term passports.
A significant part of the quitrent peasantry leaving the village was engaged in handicrafts, worked in cities, in the emerging centers of handicraft and industry, entered as civilian workers in factories-manufactories.
The growth of the urban and industrial population meant an increase in demand for agricultural products, which increased the need for marketable bread and other agricultural products, and also led to an increase in prices for them. So, in the Yaroslavl province the price of a quarter of rye fluctuated in 1785 from 2 rubles. 20 k. Up to 4 p. 20 k., And in 1802 from 4 p. 40 k. Up to 5 p. 35 k. High prices for agricultural products remained until the 20s of the 19th century.
Indicative in this respect is the statement of Shvitkov, who received the first prize for his answer to the problem of the causes of high prices, proposed in 1803 by the Free Economic Society. In his work, Shvitkov wrote, "... that the reasons for this can not be found, except for the most natural, that commercial and industrial people have multiplied ..." And then he explains: "Whoever could and would: both state and non-state people, merchants and non-merchants, owners and their subjects, natives and newcomers, worldly and spiritual, began to set up various manufactories, factories and plants, build shops and factories in their own dwellings and lend them out; many non-merchants have become merchants, many have changed their ineffectiveness to industry. " A well-known economist of the late 18th century. Prince Shcherbatov complained that "a great number of peasants, leaving agriculture, hit upon other trades."
Bread prices were high until the 1920s. 20s to 40s they fell, since at that time they were affected by a sharp decline in grain exports due to the prohibitive policy of the British government on the import of grain into England. Since the 40s. XIX century. the export of grain abroad increased again.
Nevertheless, the bulk of the grain circulated in the domestic market, and the foreign market played only an additional role. The data on the amount of bread produced in the country differ somewhat among various economists of that time (Semenova Arsenyeva and others). The most reliable are the data of the commission established to study rural productivity, cited by prof. Khromov in his work "Economic development of Russia in the XIX and XX centuries."
A significant part of the bread produced went to the market to ensure the consumption of the population of non-black earth regions, where there was not enough of their own bread, as well as for the needs of cities and the army. Semyonov believes that 43 million quarters were spent on this, that is, approximately 1 / 4-1 / 5 of the grain produced in the country. In addition to bread, other agricultural products also entered the market: meat, milk, all kinds of raw materials.
In turn, the rural and urban population presented a demand for industrial products. Goods produced by industry, with the exception of a part that came in the form of deliveries on orders from the treasury, also entered the market. Trade in those days was carried out mainly at fairs and bazaars. In addition, many sellers, peddlers, were walking around the village with goods.
In 1831, 1705 fairs were held in Russia with a total turnover of 563 million rubles. The number of bazaars significantly exceeded the number of fairs. So, in 1842, in the villages of state peasants, according to the report of the Ministry of State Property, 1968 fairs and 15,472 bazaars were held. The turnover of the ten largest fairs ranged from 10 to 140 million rubles. The turnover of the Makaryevskaya (later, since 1817, Nizhny Novgorod) fair was 53 million rubles in 1811, and 139 million rubles in 1819. Let us note in passing that the turnover of the Makaryevskaya Fair in 1720 with the money of the end of the 19th century. was 2 million rubles, and therefore the time - 224 thousand rubles. The turnover of the Irbit fair was, according to Seredonin, in 1814 - 5 million rubles, in 1840 - 12 million, in 1860 - 49.5 million. The radical fair near Kursk had a turnover in 1818 in the amount of 14 million, Lebedyanskaya - 7 million, Rostov in 1818 - 25 million rubles. 100 thousand people came to the Berdichevskaya fair, the turnover of which was over 4 million rubles, 70 thousand people came to the Korennaya, etc.
The total turnover of domestic trade reached in the first half of the 19th century. significant sizes. According to Arseniev's definition, it was equal to 900 million rubles. But the statistical calculations of prof. Arseniev in this case were made somewhat simplified, although they are close to reality. Arseniev believed that for every 45 million souls inhabiting Russia, up to 20 rubles per soul is used in trade. From here, he says, "the trade turnover will extend to 900 million rubles." This calculation turned out to be approximately correct, since another economist of that time, Semenov, determined the turnover at 992 1/2 million rubles, based on the following calculation:
The cost of bread required for the non-black earth zone (43 million quarters at 3 rubles per quarter) ... 130 million rubles
The cost of goods for handicrafts for employees (raw materials) .......... 340 million rubles
The cost of products of factories and plants ............. 240 million rubles
Profit, transportation and other expenses 282 1/2 million rubles
All this testified to the significant development of domestic trade, which played the main role in the development of commodity-money relations in the country and in the decomposition of the natural foundations of the serf economy.
Along with the growth of domestic trade, the turnover of foreign trade grew. By the beginning of the 19th century, the turnover of foreign trade was several times less than the turnover of domestic trade.
The composition of exports and imports of goods in the first half of the 19th century changed significantly. On the verge of the 18th and 19th centuries. about 3 million poods of iron were exported from Russia, which amounted to 7.5% of all exports. Bread occupied a relatively secondary place in relation to all exports, up to the 1840s.
At the beginning of the 19th century, the export of grain in relation to the amount collected in the country was 1-1.5%. Then, starting from the 40s to the 50s, it rose to 5%. As for the share of grain in relation to the total amount of exports, it was higher. For the period from 1802-1807. the cost of bread was 18.7% of the total value of exports, in 1812-1815 - 10.5%, in 1816-1820 - 31.2%, 1821-1825 - 8.4%, 1826-1830 .- 15.7%, etc. until the 1940s, when the export of grain began to rise again.
In connection with the growth in the composition of exports of the share of cereals, the share of such items of export as iron, flax, hemp, lard, leather and some other agricultural products has relatively decreased. The role of some of them declined not only in relative but also in absolute numbers.
As for imports, mainly colonial goods were brought to Russia from abroad: wines, luxury goods, which were mainly consumed by the nobility and merchants; also imported paper, raw cotton, paints.
From metal products were imported at the end of the 18th century. and at the beginning of the 19th century only braids, and in 1814-1815. tools began to be imported for a small amount (98.5 thousand rubles), from the 1920s - machines, which was associated with well-known advances in the field of technology.
In the development of commodity-money relations in the country, foreign trade played an additional role in relation to domestic. The central place was occupied by trade with the West, accounting for 90% of the total turnover of foreign trade; 10% of the turnover fell on trade with Eastern, Asian countries. The largest place in the foreign trade balance was occupied by trade with England (33.6%), Germany (11.4%), France (9.8%), China (6.7%), etc.
The development of trade required the improvement of communication lines between different parts of the country, which led to the construction of highways, wider use of waterways. In the first decades of the XIX century. the Oginsky canal is being built, connecting the Neman with the Dnieper, the construction of the Mariinsky water system is being completed, the Tikhvin canal is being put into operation, the North Catherine canal is being built, which connects the Kama and the Northern Dvina basins, the Dneprobug and Berezinsky canals are in operation. In the second decade of the XIX century. ships began to be built and put into operation on the Neva, Volga and Kama. The construction of railways also began.
The first horse-drawn cast iron railroad was built in 1806-1809. Russian technician Frolov in Altai. In 1833-1834. The Cherepanovs (father and son) built a railway near the Nizhne-Tagil plant of the Demidovs. Tsarskoye Selo was built in 1837 railway stretching 25 versts, which has no industrial value.
In 1848, the Warsaw-Vienna railway was built. In 1851, the 680 versts long railway of great economic importance between St. Petersburg and Moscow was put into operation; it had been under construction for nine years.
This railroad network was negligible for the vast expanses of Russia, and goods were transported mainly by water or horse-drawn transport. However, the development of communication lines, although insufficient, nevertheless facilitated the economic ties of different regions with each other, contributed to the expansion of the domestic market, which led to the decomposition of the natural foundations of serfdom and the creation of prerequisites for the development of new capitalist forms of organization in industry and agriculture.
- 2. Commodity-money relations.
Commodity-money relations exist in different modes of production and express the relations of production of a given mode of production, primarily property relations. Therefore, the content of commodity-money relations and the totality of the characteristics that characterize them do not remain unchanged in the transition from one mode of production to another. They do not remain unchanged within the same production method. At the same time, the content of commodity-money relations has common features, which allow us to characterize them as commodity-money relations. "... The production of goods and the circulation of goods," wrote K. Marx, "are phenomena characteristic of the most diverse modes of production, although their volume and significance are far from being the same."
Commodity-money relations not only experience the influence of certain modes of production, but they themselves actively influence the system of production relations of these modes of production. Thus, commodity-money relations contributed to the decomposition of the primitive communal, slave-owning and feudal modes of production, for which a subsistence economy was characteristic, and commodity-money relations were of a subordinate nature. The greatest role is played by commodity-money relations under capitalism, when they acquire a universal character and express the basic production relation - the relation of the exploitation of wage labor by the capitalist. The wage laborer acts as the seller of labor, and the capitalist acts as its buyer.
Under socialism commodity-money relations also exist and develop. With the transformation of social relations on a socialist basis, the essence and role of commodity-money categories change. commodity-money relations express fundamentally different social ties and perform new functions. They represent a form of production and a means of exchanging the activities of workers in collective production. Commodity-money relations have a socialist content. Scope Commodity-money relations have narrowed as a result of the fact that labor power, land, its subsoil, etc. ceased to be a commodity. Commodity-money relations in socialist society are of a subordinate nature and are not a universal and dominant form. At the same time, they are an important means of functioning of the socialist mode of production, distribution and exchange of activities. Therefore, a relationship characterized by such
etc.................
Commodity-money relations
Commodity-money relations
Commodity-money relations are social relations that arise between people in the process of production and exchange. Commodity-money relations originated in the period of primitive mankind, when people began to carry out random exchanges. Of course, the first exchanges were direct and natural, that is, one product was exchanged for another directly without the intermediation of money or other product (goods) of an intermediary. Exchanges appeared not so much as a result of surpluses, as many textbooks on economics and a number of economists interpret, but as a result of their benefits. Even the first casual exchanges carried some kind of benefit, and were not exchanges for the sake of exchanges. Otherwise, they simply would not have taken place. Each of the parties to the exchange initially pursued its own benefit. And only the presence of mutual benefit led to the exchange. And the benefit of exchanges, both today and in the primitive period, could only consist in gaining working time, or simply in obtaining a new product.
Of course, the first exchanges took place not only without the intermediation of money, but also during the absence of commodity production. Since, of course, it was not the appearance of commodity production that gave rise to exchange, but the appearance of constant exchanges that contributed to the birth of special production for exchanges. Moreover, production for exchanges first existed, simply, within the natural economy, as a part of it, and only over time began to separate itself as an independent commodity production.
But with the development of exchange and commodity production, and even more so with the advent of merchants, ordinary direct natural exchange too slowed down these progressive aspects of the economy. Direct in-kind exchange opportunities were time consuming. Therefore, direct natural exchange gradually began to be transformed into an intermediary exchange with the help of, first, an intermediary product, which smoothly passed into an intermediary product. Money is also an intermediary commodity that has taken on its own specific form and function.
Today, most of the exchange processes take place with the help of money, and commodities have become the products of exchange. Therefore, modern exchange relations began to be called commodity-money relations, although in essence they are all the same relations that arise during various exchanges. In our time, there are several main types of such relationships.
The first is the commodity-money relationship between producers.
The second is the relationship between manufacturers and traders.
The third is the relationship between merchants and consumers.
The fourth is the relationship between employers and mercenaries.
Fifth, the relationship between landlords and tenants.
Sixth, the relationship between lenders and borrowers.
Seventh - the relationship between the state and producers.
Eighth - the relationship between the state and citizens.
The ninth is the relationship between the state and civil servants.
Of course, this lists only the main types of commodity-money relations. In practice, there are several more types of less developed relationships... In addition, in life, many types of economic relations are intermingled, creating a very complex commodity-money relations. All these various economic relations are a manifestation of any relations associated with the varieties of exchange. Exchange and relations associated with it are the basis of all economic, and, therefore, social relations. All of humanity today is entangled in the manifestation of various economic relations that underlie both the state of society at the moment and in the direction of its development. It should always be remembered that legislation in the field of economic relations can affect the economy in three directions: 1 - on development; 2 - for stagnation and 3 - for collapse.
Therefore, the state and its husbands should never forget about this, both the government and the legislators. More often, economic legislation works either for the collapse of the economy, or for its development. Society usually stays in stagnation not for long, then its economy, with appropriate changes, either begins to fall or grow, so where the legislators will turn together with the rulers. And in order for the economy to grow, an increase in demand is necessary, but its natural growth, not credit growth (credit growth is a dead end leading to a crisis). With an increase in aggregate demand (internal and external), producers will always be able to turn around and catch up with supply, at least at the expense of profits, at least at the expense of loans. But in the absence of growth in demand, producers and gratuitous (with a zero interest rate) loan are not needed ...
Today each of us is constantly involved in commodity-money relations. I came to the store to buy bread and milk - entered into a commodity-money relationship with the seller (store). Gave the car for repair - relationship with the bus station. You have been fined - you have entered into a relationship with the state. And so on - all your actions related to any kind of exchange (goods and money) - commodity-money relations with someone. And the whole economy of the state and interstate economic (and with them political) relations depend on what law they are based on.