What is the name of the letter of the ancient Incas. History of writing. Nodular letter - kippu. Main goals of nodular writing

For a long time it was believed that one of the greatest ancient civilizations - the Inca empire - was "just" a civilization of the Bronze Age, which did not know writing.

But last summer, a book by Harvard professor Gary Urton "Signs of the Inca Kipu" was published, which claims that the Incas did have a writing system, albeit a special one, disguised as colored strings tied in knots.

We are talking about the nodular letter kipu (in Quechua - the Inca language - "quipu" means "knot"). Following Urton, more and more scientists are inclined to think that everything is not so simple with a pile ...

End of the 16th century The conquered lands of South America are ruled by the Spanish conquistadors. One day an elderly Indian appeared on the way of three Spaniards who were in a hurry on business. Judging by his clothes, he was a member of the local nobility.

Seeing the strangers, the Indian tried to hide something in the folds of his clothes. But the conquistadors managed to notice his attempt and, without ceremony, snatched from him what he was trying to protect from prying eyes.

To the amazement of the Spaniards, in their hands was a bundle of colored ropes with knots. The conquistadors, looking at each other in surprise, asked the Indian what it was. The Inca, seeing that he had nowhere to go, replied with dignity: "All the deeds of the conquerors are written here, both good and bad."

The Spaniards did not like this answer very much. It was decided to punish the Indian severely for his insolence, and to destroy the "compromising evidence" - mysterious knots, just in case. This was the beginning of the widespread confiscation and destruction of unique cultural monuments of a great civilization - samples of Inca knot writing.

The Spaniards declared the kipa an object of pagan worship, although they themselves were sure that they contained important information. But attempts to decipher it led nowhere. The most prominent specialists in secret writing unsuccessfully fought over the knots .. But the Incas themselves had special people - kipukamayoki (keepers of the kipu), who could receive the necessary information by fingering the knots with incredible speed with their fingers. But they kept their secrets unbreakable.

Then a legend appeared among the Europeans, which said that the kipu is nothing but a curse to the conquerors, created by the cunning Incas in revenge for the destroyed state .. Gradually everyone calmed down on the fact that the kipu is just a decorative element of clothing. In extreme cases - a primitive counting system ("knots for memory").

The systematic study of kippu began only in 1923, when the historian Leland Locke became interested in knots. He completely rejected the view that the kipu was decorative. But Locke considered nodular writing only as a way to convey mathematical data, and it took more than a dozen years to change this view. Many scholars now believe that the colored knots of the Incas gradually evolved into a complex system of three-dimensional writing (like Braille).

Today, in museums and private collections there are only 600 miraculously preserved copies of the ancient kipu: Archaeologist Robert Ascher at Cornell University believes that about 20% of them are not numeric. Back in 1981, he suggested that kipu is a special form of writing. According to scientists, the kipu contains about one and a half thousand pieces of information - individual characters. That is, slightly more than in the Sumerian-Babylonian cuneiform, and almost twice as much as in Egyptian or Mayan hieroglyphics.

Mathematicians have determined that the Incas used a binary encoding to create the Kipu, similar to the one that underlies modern computer languages. Did the representatives of the ancient civilization create a rope computer ?! Scientists also believe that if kipu is really a form of writing, then it does not convey ordinary spoken speech, but is something like a musical notation or the same computer code.

The already mentioned Gary Urton in his book claims that at least a dozen ancient documents relating to the history of the Incas have been translated into written language from a kipu. The only catch is that no one has yet been able to determine which documents have been translated from which pile.

Online articles
“The oldest kipu was discovered by archaeologist Ruth Martha Shady Solis. During excavations in Caral, he managed to find a sample that dates back to the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC. After Sumerian cuneiform and Egyptian hieroglyphic writing, this proto-kipu is the oldest evidence of a written language among the indigenous population of the North American continent. Radiocarbon analysis showed that the rest of the kipu, which were found during the archaeological excavations, were created around the 18th-10th centuries AD. At the same time, scientists still cannot explain such a large interval between the dates of origin of these samples of nodular writing. "
In another source:
“Kipu (from the word quipu, which means“ knot ”in the Quechua language) is the so-called knot writing, a mnemonic and counting system that was used in pre-Incan civilizations from the 3rd millennium BC. However, such an early find is rare - the next one dates back to the 7th century AD. Kipu existed until 1725, but by that time the art of reading them had already been virtually lost. "
...
“The length of the suspended threads and the position of the knots made on them were also important: the higher and the more to the left, the higher the value or quality of the described phenomenon. In addition, a piece of wood or stone could be inserted into the carrier thread - perhaps this also served to clarify the meaning. "

The point is simply that this earliest sample is not yet a letter as such, or rather, it was (only) a sketch, an attempt to portray some meaning, information through ropes and knots. The very idea, apparently, came through the horses. Different tribes or the same tribe, sending a herd over a distance (or sending a messenger, etc.) used ... the animal's mane to transmit information.
The hairs of the mane were braided and knots were knitted on the pigtails, meaning, for example, first of all ... the number of horses that are sent in herds to another tribe or part of the same tribe that is at some distance.

It's pretty simple, let's agree. And why was it necessary to indicate the number in the herd on the mane of a certain horse? So ... a kind of trade. Since ancient times, man has learned to be economical and practical.
So, the very first on these knots is definitely the count. Uh ... the bill? Or just a record of the quantity? How to convey information with a horse to the leader of another tribe: "I give you twenty such horses, in exchange for five of them I want thirty quivers with arrows from the curare, for the rest fifteen seven bulls"?
This means that twenty knots were tied on one pigtail: 9 + 9 + 2.

This meant: there are 20 heads in the herd. How to make it clear that we are talking about heads, and not about something else? Maybe some horses should be loaded, but the driver lost his wineskins on the way? All 20 ...
Therefore, the sign "head" will be ...

Why. Because this knot ... is "its own head", it has entered into itself, it is assembled, it is whole as something completely whole, as ... living (as if). Live node. It is difficult to convey this meaning if the integrity of the knot is not immediately felt. He is perfect. He's perfect. It's hard to express otherwise. Closed.
In general, from this node there is a feeling of completeness, we agree. But this node ...

It is understood as "not a head".
Estimated meaning of kipu flowers by modern researchers:
red - war, blood;
white - peace, health;
black - death, illness;
green - harvest, bread;
yellow - the sun;
blue - sea, water.

Application of ropes with knots different nations

Qipu (Quechua khipu -\u003e Spanish quipu - "knot", "to tie knots", "count"; am. Chino - chino) - an ancient mnemonic and counting system (in conjunction with the yupana counting device) of the Incas and their predecessors in the Andes, a kind of writing: it is a complex rope weave and knots made from the wool of South American camelids (alpacas and llamas) or from cotton. The kippu can be from several hanging threads up to 2000. It was used to transmit messages by messengers of the chapel along specially laid imperial roads, as well as in various aspects of public life (as a calendar, topographic system, for fixing taxes and laws, etc.) ... One of the Spanish chroniclers (José de Acosta) wrote that “the entire Inca empire was ruled by means of the kipu” and no one could avoid those who carried out the calculations with the help of knots.
Ancient China, Ancient Babylon, Israel, North American Indians, Mesoamerica and South America ...
Other territories and peoples:
Ropes with knots were also found in other lands among various peoples: on about. Ryukyu, the Caroline Islands, Hawaii, some mountainous regions of California, West Africa, the Mongols, and also in Europe. (Wikipedia)

And as you can see, nodular writing existed and was widespread in ancient times throughout the entire planet, it is not an invention of a single people. However, it is important exactly how it arose, why its principle will become clear. Because if it was used by different peoples, and even at different times and eras, that is, in different cultural conditions, then it is quite clear that for our own sake, for the sake of interest, nothing prevents us from taking and ... investing in the system of a nodular letters OUR character of displaying meanings, information, and, which is interesting, since we will not deviate from a single and basic principle ... our nodular letter could be understood by that ancient manthat he himself used it, but somewhat in his own way (only I would have to explain a little - on the fingers - what kind of information is prevalent in our letter).

How to mark the arithmetic expression of subtraction on the rope?

Why? Because the sign-knot "not the head" does not mean wholeness. In this case, this is a minus, as you can understand.
Why mark an arithmetic expression on a knot?
For example ... in order to say: "give me two cows from your herd, you already have nine."
How to make it clear that we are talking about cows? We tie two heads below the arithmetic expression, between the heads we tie the sign of unity. You get the image of a head with horns.

Why is this an image of a head with horns? Those who exchange a nodal letter with each other are at least approximately aware of what kind of record will be in the message, what to relate to. If these are economic relations, then this is one understanding ... If astronomers communicate ... then, as it turns out, the cattle dealer will not understand such a letter. Ay-yay-yay ... primitive writing means. Not ... not at all. The cattle dealer will not understand the astronomer's notes even in the modern language common to all. Read - read; understand - will not understand.
Okay, why not impose one "head" and next to it a knot representing the number "two" (ie "horns")? Then it will actually be this: one head (cow?) And, accordingly, since the number is two, these are two cows. That is, the head. Two heads of something; not the point that we are talking about cows - the recipient of the message will not understand us. Then “next to”: it is important to understand that above and below also changes the meaning, since that which is higher, naturally, is more significant.
For example, in a subtraction expression, the larger number appears higher. And if, when subtracting, what we subtract is more than the number from which we subtract ... then this is absurd, it doesn't happen, you can't subtract ten from a herd of nine.
And if addition? Then the arrangement of the numbers is not important. Arithmetically. But there may be some accompanying (extraneous just for counting) meaning.
Subtle science ... this is nodular writing.
So what about the cow? Why are two heads and the number two a head with horns?
Two heads and number one is a typo. Perhaps not in vain, because ... two heads and the number two between them is ... just veal, meat. I.e? We (as a cattle dealer) receive a letter with two heads and between the number two. What do we think? That if this number was one, then we would be talking about a whole (live) cow. And since the number is two, then ... the image (meaning) is flattened (read below why there are two “head” nodes and a unit between them is an indication of one cow).
I wonder if the number three is between the heads? This is ... some excess (meaning); can we talk about bones then? Why not ... in production, everything goes into action.
And four? Uh ... there's something unimaginable here. Two heads (we are talking about the sign "head", it is important not to brand the sign itself with the image of a "cow", the image of a cow - this is according to the situation) on a nodular letter it is STILL not specifically two heads of something: you have to look at the whole nodular calico. So, four ... between the two signs "head" ... And we will not understand this here, it is determined by the situation itself, which dictates the conditions for the necessity of the message.
It is also important to note that the branches ...

They are an important and equally constructive element of the record. And as it is believed (according to information that somehow came down from ancient sources), the left branch is more significant. There is logic in this, because a person's heart is on the left side, that is, that rope-thread that is attached to the left of the main one is added as if from the very heart. It turns out, therefore, that the right branch ... may contain a contradiction, doubt, a question (in fact, the latter is most important, because, seeing the right branch, the first thing we think: there is a question). And what is to the left, from the heart ... that is confidence.

So...

The number one connects two heads. Similarly, this could be the meaning of a wedding, what do you think? It all depends on the conditions in which the letter is sent, addressed. Semantic overlap, however! Like ... yes. Otherwise, when they communicate in the usual, that is, in the usual way, there are no overlaps?
We are still at the simplest level of mastering the technique of nodular writing. This is almost still the alphabet. With attempts to pronounce syllables.

"Give two cows from your herd of nine"
BUT...
Why (after all) two "heads" and the number "one" mean one cow? Because two "heads" (the sign of a head means not only a head, it is a sign of integrity, information to the general, a sign of order, etc., and, accordingly, the sign of "not a head" is something opposite to the above) ... or rather like this: the sign of unity between “two heads” looks like a connector, because a unit in its semantic quality is anyway something integral, right? And the unit between something (the same, the same type) tends to work as a connector.
Imagine the unit between bolt and nut.
A strange image, as it were ... but, nevertheless, looking at this we begin to understand that it is not without reason, right? So they portrayed ... The unit of these two objects attracts each other, and since we know that it is much more convenient for them together, it is like a command: to connect them!
Well ... and two heads (of the alleged cow) are combined into one. And what? What remains is the “semantic foam”: the number 2 (two) in 1 (one). And by itself an image with horns emerges, because the horns are steam.
Pretty simple. And this is how the ancients perceived (at the level of meanings and in general ... as it was convenient for them) and used nodular writing to transmit information and store it.
But this is only one element of the "alphabet" or the way of presenting messages on knots and strings.
Certainly. A couple of beeches ... hmm. And there ... the whole story, you know. Ancient, moreover. Interesting...

What about flowers? It's generally simple. It's a rainbow.
That is, those colors of the rainbow that are higher are the defining ones ... as in the law of the angle: a triangle obeys an angle, an angle obeys a line - that means the main line. (There is also a point and a whole geometry therefore). By the way, for the image.

Well, what is red blood?
Yes ... blood ... it's hard to argue. Another red sunset. The red eyes of a drunkard will not work, because only "something in common" is taken, and therefore the majority understandable, defining.

So ... now what? Can I start using nodular writing? M ... basically, yes. A little bit of ingenuity and imagination, and you will create your own macrame kipu. But this “own” macrame-kipu of yours, if it focuses on common concepts, definitions, factors, etc., and so on, and not only on your own and sole vision of things ... then it will become clear - in principle - to anyone.

A herd of 20 cows.

My herd of 20 heads needs a shepherd (ad on a tree in the village of the ancient Incas).

Today in museums and private collections there are only 600 miraculously preserved copies of the ancient kipu: Archaeologist Robert Ascher at Cornell University believes that about 20% of them are not numeric. Back in 1981, he suggested that kipu is a special form of writing.

In the photo you can see the kipu - an ancient counting system of the Incas, which consists of complex rope weaves and knots made of alpaca or llama wool or cotton (in Quechua language, khipu means “knot”, “to tie knots”, “count”). One bale can contain from several to 2500 threads of different colors and sizes.

The way to write on the bale The nodes in the upper third mean hundreds, in the middle, tens, and in the lower third, ones. A - base cord, B1-B3 - individual pendants used for recording. Drawing from the book of the Czech ethnographer Miloslav Stingl “The State of the Incas. Glory and death of the sons of the sun "
The oldest kipu dates back to around 3000 BC. e., and the first written mention of kipu dates back to 1533 (this system of counting was described in his letter by the Spanish conquistador Hernando Pizarro).
Kipu was widespread in the Inca Empire. According to the Spanish chronicler José de Acosta, "the whole empire was ruled by means of the kipu." With the help of the kipu, for example, the number of lamas, the number of soldiers or the harvested harvest was taken into account, the population was census, and taxes were recorded; kipu were even used as a calendar.
The Incas developed a whole system of reading information. The main thread of the kipu was the beginning of the story. Thinner threads were attached obliquely to it, which were used to record data. The position of the knot on the cord showed the numerical order (tens, hundreds, thousands), and the number of knots determined the prime numbers. But in order to read the knotted message, one had to understand not only the knots and their position on the rope, but also know the designations of each color. So, for example, red meant an army, an army, white - silver, yellow - gold. All information was recorded by specially trained officials - kipukamayoki - and passed on to the center, that is, in Cuzco.

"Knot letters" were delivered by professional couriers - chaska runners - along the system of the imperial Inca roads. Convenience during transportation is an important advantage of the kipu, because messages were sometimes delivered hundreds of kilometers away, and parchment or tree leaves, which served as paper for the Incas, were poorly suited for this. The bale could be crumpled and placed in a bag.
We have survived many copies of the Inca kippu, of various sizes and purposes. There is even a dedicated khipu database (see the Khipu database project). However, these “letters” are important not only to decipher, but also to preserve them. Kipu made of natural fiberstherefore they need special temperature, humidity and protection from fading. Store the bale on horizontal panels covered with paper, neutral in acidity. The cords are treated with special brushes and protected from insects.
Nikolay Nikolaevich Nepomniachtchi

Nodular writing is one of the three most ancient systems for writing information. It is most correct to designate it as a subject-written system for storing and transmitting data. Initially, it was used for counting and keeping a calendar, then it evolved into a full-fledged form of writing. The most advanced system for storing data using knots and threads is the knotted writing of the ancient Peruvians or Incas.

What is the name of nodular writing? What is it?

Nodal writing is ancient species counting system. It has also been used to make it easier to memorize large amounts of information, and in some cultures it has even evolved into a primitive but effective writing system.

IN different cultures nodular letter looks and is named differently, and it can serve different purposes. For example, the most developed system called kipu belonged to the peoples of the Andes. The main culture that supposedly created the kippa was the Inca tribes. The nodular script of the North American Indians is called "wampum" and has a slightly different form and content than the kipu.

In addition to the Indian peoples, nodular writing, as a carrier of information, was widely developed in China. In ancient Babylon, it was used for rituals and other religious and mystical purposes. There are suggestions that nodular writing was a form of writing of the Slavs, before the baptism of Rus. There are also a number of historical arguments supporting the theory of the existence of nodular writing in the religious system of India.

The main purposes of nodular writing

Initially, the nodular writing of the ancient Peruvians looked extremely primitive and was used as a counting system and, possibly, as a symbolic transmission of information. The first kippu consisted of several strands with few knots.

With the development of the Inca civilization, the kipu became more complex. Information began to vary in the number of threads and knots, the size and location of the knots, and even the colors of the threads. According to some historians, all ancient civilization the Incas and neighboring peoples was ruled by the kipu. They encoded laws, maps of the area, data on taxes and military force. Also, through the nodule letter, the country was governed.

Very often, nodular writing was used for calendaring. In China, it replaced modern organizers and diaries. In Babylon, knots were used in various rituals and during witchcraft. In many cultures, during ritual ceremonies and chants, mnemonic rosaries with various numbers of knots and beads were used, which helped the priests to remember complex words and movements and not get confused during the ceremony.

South American Indians: Kipu

The Incas tied knots on woolen or cotton threads. One thread was the basis of the kipu and others were imposed on it, which were the information carrier. The Peruvian knotted script (kipu) is considered one of the three most ancient types of human writing, immediately after the ancient Egyptian and Sumerian. The first kipu found on the territory of modern Peru dates back to the third millennium BC.

Until 1923, historians considered the kipu to be a uniquely developed counting and calendar system, but the work of Leslie Locke proved that in fact it is a peculiar and rather rich writing system. Unfortunately, non-numeric characters are very difficult to decipher, and there is only speculation about their meaning. This difficulty stems from the theory that the Kipu did not try to reproduce the language phonetically, but relied on a system of mnemonic and numerical signs, like a cipher or a system of codes.

If a modern science it is easy to imagine the use of a kipu as accounting papers and a calendar, it is much more difficult to "read" the legislative kipu. There is incontrovertible evidence that the kipu was used to administer and keep court records, both complaints and sentences; this once again proves how complex the nodular writing of the ancient Incas was.

North American Indians: Wampum

The technique of recording and transmitting information, which was used by many North American Indian tribes, can hardly be called nodular writing, since instead of knots it most often used beads. Beads strung on strings - wampums - were not only information carriers, but could be used as currency units.

There are surviving agreements between the Indian tribes of the Iroquois and Delaware, and even a treaty between the Delaware and Quakers, recorded in wampum. Another historical value of the Wampum for the North American tribes was that the main events of the history of the tribe were recorded on them, and the elders shared them with young tribesmen. It is reliably known that not all Iroquois and Indians from neighboring tribes could read and compose wampums - this was the prerogative of the leaders and elders.

Mesoamerica

The main ancient culture of Mexico was the Mayan civilization, which, according to basic historical data, was too advanced to use nodular writing. The Maya created a full-fledged phonetic verbal and syllabic writing. However, the earliest codices and first records date from the third century BC. e., while the first nodular records of kipu are almost three thousand years older.

There is a theory of the existence of pre-codex knotted records, which was first voiced by Louis Boden in 1928, and it suggests that knots and threads were used by the Maya tribes before the creation of a more developed writing system and number system. In addition to the Maya Indians, there were a number of other, less developed cultures on the Central American continent that used nodular writing for various purposes (in everyday life and in the ritual-religious system).

China

The existence of nodular writing in ancient China has not been unequivocally proven - not a single copy or a worthy description of the Chinese nodular writing system has survived. The prototype of the Chinese hieroglyphic writing appeared early enough, in the Shang-Yin state, which is the first step in the historical development of China. As a result of the early formation of developed writing, nodular writing has sunk into oblivion and has not been used in any area of \u200b\u200bthe life of the Chinese people.

The only evidence of its existence is the mention in the annals and teachings of Lao Tzu. From these scanty data, we can only conclude that the knotted letter was and was most often used as a modern organizer - knots were tied on a rope, denoting the days and things that a person had to do - the larger the knot, the more important the matter.

Other nations

Historically, the existence of a nodular communication system in Micronesia has been proven, where nodes were especially often used in the creation of maps. In Babylon, knots were used in witchcraft rituals, a similar purpose was performed by the Slavic "nauz" - knots tied to a weapon in order to strengthen it and weaken the enemy.

The idea of \u200b\u200bthe existence of nodular writing among the Slavs has not been proven by anyone and is only indirectly confirmed, while evidence of its use in India exists to this day. In Tantrism, the initiation ritual consists of tying knots on three threads of different colors, each thread and each individual knot (and there are 27 of them in total) have their own symbolism.

Storing information with threads and knots is mentioned in Finnish and Estonian folk art... In some Scandinavian legends and myths, the thread plays the role of a carrier not only of information, but also of human destinies.

Slavs

Folklore, linguistic and other circumstantial evidence served as the basis for the theory of the existence of nodular writing among the Slavs and their ancestors. Proponents of this theory cite stable expressions as evidence: "a knot for memory", "a narrative thread" or "confuse the meaning", as well as Baba Yaga's fairy tangle-guide.

In addition, there are various archaeological finds depicting intricate figured knots. According to A. Barashkov, the author of the article "The Knot Letter of the Ancient Slavs" in 1992, the images that adorn the first Slavic manuscripts - complex interweaving of threads and twigs that form different and often repeating knots and shapes - are proof of the developed nodular writing. Barashkov believes that each of these nodes has its own meaning.

Finns

The existence of knotted writing among the Finns and Karelians is confirmed by several excerpts from the Kalevala, telling how a legend or song is taken from an unwound ball, or vice versa - songs sung by nature are woven by the narrator into a ball and stored in a copper chest. Images from the Finnish epic are extremely similar to Slavic folklore paintings and some stable expressions, like "lie with three boxes" or "what he said, then strung on a thread."

Despite the primitiveness of nodular writing, it has found its application in many cultures that are in no way connected with each other, and this can only speak of the universality and convenience of the method for both the counting and mnemonic and even linguistic systems.

From the dictionaries, based on the analysis of words, from the chronicles, from all the documents, it followed that it should have had its own full-fledged writing, and not just the nodular letter of the kipu.

In addition, it is known that throughout the territory Tihuatinsuyu the same laws were in effect. The judges could not rely only on their memory: it means that there was an exact and, moreover, a written code of laws. For example, in the report of the Viceroy of Toledo from 1582, it was said that “... 12 Indians were recently condemned by the Indians themselves according to the laws and customs to which they obeyed, and these laws were written with the help of kipu knots, and also with the help of signs, which the judges on the tables had marked in different colors. The judges, reading these signs, determined every punishment worthy ... ".

AND Jose de Acosta writes: “None of the Indian peoples, of which there are many in our time, does not use letters or writing, but only in two other ways, which are the essence of drawings and figures; this is known only between the Indians of Peru and New Spain. " Vice kingdom New Spain was a Spanish colony encompassing a territory. Before the arrival of the Spaniards, it was located on it, in which the Aztec letter was used.

Chroniclers also reported that Pachacutec, the ruler of the Incas, "... ordered to paint the entire history of the Incas on large tables, which, framed in gold frames, were kept in a special sanctuary." But the Incas, especially in the early period, never depicted either people or animals.

When the Spanish invaded Cuzco, they found temples full of gold in the capital of the Incas, and the walls of the temples were hung with variegated, painted fabrics. Many of these fabrics were destroyed by the conquistadors during looting. Victoria took up the study of the surviving tissues, suggesting that history was recorded on them Pachacuteca.

First of all, Victoria took up the fabrics known in science as “paracas fabrics”. These fabrics were found on the Paracas Peninsula, where one of the most interesting cultures of ancient Peru was born three hundred years before our era. These fabrics attracted Victoria's attention primarily by the fact that among their patterns, images of ordinary beans were clearly distinguished. Exactly the same beans were found on the painted vessels of the Mochica Indian culture by the greatest connoisseur of ancient Heruian ceramics, Raphael Oyle. Rafael Larco Oile possessed great intuition, but alas! - too scanty material for evidence. And linguistic authorities have solidly rejected his suggestions that these beans can be signs of writing. Victoria knew well all the "cons", but they did not seem convincing to her.

Two thousand paracas fabrics were kept in the storerooms of the National Archaeological Museum, in huge chests, which hardly anyone has opened since the time they were put there. And each was wrapped in several layers of fabric: white and painted. A thorough examination of the tissues took twenty-one months. On some of them, Victoria found images of beans. In addition, beans were painted on the forehead of clay figurines of felino - the cat god who was revered throughout South America. This finally convinced Victoria: beans could not be the chips for the game. For to place chips for playing on the forehead of the most revered deity is no less sacrilege than for a Catholic to bring a deck of greasy cards to the Madonna. And the beans on each felino were arranged differently; so different inscriptions differ from each other. Now Victoria was completely sure: beans are signs of writing. Victoria managed to identify three hundred twenty-five bean characters. This was a very significant discovery.

The science of writing states: if there are thirty characters in writing, this is the alphabet; if one hundred is a syllabic letter; from three hundred and above is a hieroglyphic writing. For example, in the Maya writing, well-known to Americanists, there are approximately four hundred characters. Consequently, the ancient Peruvian writing was close to hieroglyphic. Compiling and organizing the catalog tokapu, Victoria highlighted sixteen characterswhich were more common than others. But the Inca number 16 was sacred.

And again Victoria buries herself in ancient manuscripts: is there an interpretation of at least one of these signs? ... The first tokapu who could read were the words "Cuzco" and "Inca". It was these tokapu that were most often found on the clothes of the Incas and on cups. With incredible effort, they managed to make out the inscription on one of the tunics of the Great Inca. It was an excerpt from the chronicle. The rest of the tunics also had historical events recorded. Now it was possible to say with confidence: the wardrobe of each Great Inca was the code of laws of the empire, its historical memory ... Judge for yourself, in what other writing language is the verb tense indicated ... by the color of the sign? That is, if some sign means, say, the verb "to go", then, inscribed in green paint, it means "walked", in red - "I am going", and blue - "I will go."

Why was this letter forgotten? Chronicler Montesinos reports that the Incas had a period when they had their own script - "kelka" in Quechua. These were parchments or special leaves of trees on which they wrote. However, the Incas forbade its use. The fact is that during the reign of the Inca Tupaca Kauri Pachacuti several provinces did not agree to voluntarily join their kingdom. Great sacrifices were made to consult with Ilya Tisi Viracochei... The answer was that the cause of the "contagion" was writing that should no longer be used. Then Tupac Kauri Pachacuti issued a law forbidding the use of kelds on pain of deprivation of life. After that, the Peruvians never used writing again.

About sacred writing, which was later prohibited by their priests (after which only kippu) wrote Inca Garcilaso de la Vega (History of the Inca State, published in a series of Literary Monuments in the 1970s). Fabrics with patterns inscribed in squares along the border, shown in it in the illustrations. But there is little scientific information about the signs of this letter and it is unlikely that scientists have such artifacts at their disposal. ( I.K. Fedorova, MAE RAS)