R.I. Lalaev. Dysgraphia. Psychophysiological structure of the writing process. "Psychophysiology of writing
1.3 Psychophysiological characteristics of the reading process
Reading is a complex process. An adult, experienced reader does not notice the elementary actions that make up the reading process, since these actions are automated, but a 6-year-old child learning to read does not yet combine all elementary actions into one complex one, for him each element is an independent action, often - very difficult, requiring not only strong-willed, intellectual, but even great physical effort.
An experienced reader does not stop his gaze at every letter and even at every word: 2-3 words fall into his "reading field" at once, fixed by a brief stop of the eyes. It has been established that the reader's gaze moves along the line in jerks, stopping on the line 3-4 times. Awareness of the text occurs during stops. The number of stops depends not only on the experience of the reader, but also on the difficulty of the text.
An experienced reader does not need to read aloud: quiet reading proceeds 1.5-2 times faster than loud reading, understanding of the text turns out to be even higher, since when reading quietly, the reader has the opportunity to “run” the text much ahead with his eyes, return to individual places of what he read, reread them ( work on readable text).
a) The “reading field” of a novice reader covers only one letter in order to “recognize” it, often he compares it with others; reading a letter arouses in him a natural desire to immediately pronounce a sound, but the teacher requires him to pronounce a whole syllable - therefore, he has to read at least one more letter, keeping the previous one in memory, he must merge two or three sounds. And here for many children lie considerable difficulties.
After all, to read a word, it is not enough to reproduce the sounds that make it up. The process of reading proceeds slowly, since in order to read a word, it is necessary to perform as many acts of perception and recognition as there are letters in the word, and besides, you still need to merge sounds into syllables, and syllables into words.
b) The eyes of a novice reader often lose a line, as he has to go back, reread letters, syllables. His gaze is not yet accustomed to moving strictly parallel to the lines. This difficulty gradually disappears as the scope of the student's attention expands, and he perceives at once a whole syllable or a whole word.
c) A beginner to read does not always easily understand the meaning of what he has read. Great attention is paid to the technical side of reading, to each elementary action, and by the time the word is read and pronounced, the student does not have time to realize it. Understanding the meaning is torn off from reading, "recognition" of the word does not occur simultaneously with its reading, but after. The school pays great attention to the consciousness of reading. It is enhanced by pictures, questions and explanations of the teacher, visual aids; reading aloud contributes to awareness, auditory stimulus supports the visual perception of the word and helps to understand its meaning. And yet, poor reading awareness is one of the main difficulties in teaching literacy.
d) It is typical for an inexperienced reader to guess a word either by the first syllable, or by a picture, or by context. However, attempts to guess the words, although they lead to errors in reading, indicate that the student seeks to read consciously. (Guesses are also characteristic of an experienced reader, but his guesses rarely lead to errors.) Errors caused by guesses are corrected by immediate reading by syllables, sound-letter analysis and synthesis.
The greatest difficulty in teaching reading is the difficulty of sound fusion: children pronounce individual sounds, but they cannot get a syllable.
The main and, in fact, the only effective way to overcome the difficulty of sound fusion is syllabic reading. Setting the syllable as the unit of reading can minimize the difficulty of sound fusion.
As you can see, the process of reading for a first grader is a complex, very difficult process, the elements of which are not only very loosely interconnected, but also carry independent, their own difficulties. Overcoming them and merging all the elements into a complex action require great volitional efforts and a significant amount of attention, its stability.
The key to success in learning is the development in the child of such important cognitive processes as perception, memory, thinking and speech.
Such an organization of learning, in which each student is included in an active, largely independent cognitive activity, will develop the speed and accuracy of perception, stability, duration and breadth of attention, the volume and readiness of memory, flexibility, logic and abstractness of thinking, complexity, richness, diversity. and correct speech.
The development of a student is possible only in activity. So, to be attentive in relation to the subject means to be active in relation to it: "What we call the organization of the student's attention is, first of all, the organization of the specific processes of his educational activity."
In the modern school, a sound analytical-synthetic method of teaching literacy has been adopted. Special studies and experience show that children coming to grade 1, especially from kindergarten, are mentally ready both for the perception of individual sounds and for analysis and synthesis as mental actions.
During the period of learning to read and write, great attention is paid to the development of phonemic hearing, that is, the ability to distinguish between individual sounds in a speech stream, to distinguish sounds from words, from syllables. Students must “recognize” phonemes (basic sounds) not only in strong, but also in weak positions, to distinguish between phoneme sound variants.
But at school, the requirements for phonemic hearing are very high: schoolchildren are trained in decomposing words into sounds, in isolating a sound from combinations with various other sounds, etc.
Phonemic hearing is necessary not only for successful learning, but also for developing a spelling skill: in Russian, a huge number of spellings is associated with the need to correlate a letter with a phoneme in a weak position (Russian spelling is sometimes called phonemic).
The development of phonemic hearing also requires a highly developed auditory apparatus. Therefore, during the period of literacy training, it is necessary to conduct various auditory exercises (development of auditory perceptions).
The basis of teaching both reading and writing is the speech of the children themselves, the level of its development by the time they enter school.
Chapter II. Theoretical foundations of teaching reading to children of primary preschool age
The system for correcting writing disorders in children of primary school age is not sufficiently developed, the purpose of the pedagogical experiment is to search for new forms and methods for correcting writing disorders in children of primary school age with dysgraphia. In connection with the relevance and purpose, the following tasks were set: to conduct a survey of the children being tested; develop and test a program for correcting violations ...
Cognitive activity occurs as a result (by) personal and group reflection at all stages of work on the project. 1.4 Psychological and pedagogical grounds for applying the project method in the environmental education of children of primary school age A personal approach to the process of teaching and educating younger students made it possible to study the environment, "intervene in ... 
With reading disorders Conclusion In accordance with the objectives of the study, the first chapter analyzed the psychological and pedagogical literature on the problem of using computer technologies in correcting reading disorders in children of primary school age, which allowed us to draw the following conclusions. The main conditions for the successful mastery of reading skills is the formation of oral ...
Dysgraphia - this is a partial specific violation of the writing process. Writing is a complex form of speech activity, a multi-level process. Various analyzers take part in it: speech-auditory, speech-motor, visual, general motor. Between them in the process of writing a close connection and interdependence is established. The structure of this process is determined by the stage of mastering the skill, tasks and nature of writing. Writing is closely connected with the process of oral speech and is carried out only on the basis of a sufficiently high level of its development. The writing process of an adult is automated and differs from the nature of the writing of a child who masters this skill. So, for an adult, writing is a purposeful activity, the main purpose of which is to convey meaning or fix it. The writing process of an adult is characterized by integrity, coherence, and is a synthetic process. The graphic image of the word is reproduced not by individual elements (letters), but as a whole. The word is reproduced by a single motor act. The process of writing is carried out automatically and proceeds under double control: kinesthetic and visual.
Writing Process Operations
Automated hand movements are the final step in the complex process of translating spoken language into written language. This is preceded by a complex activity that prepares the final stage. The writing process has a multi-level structure, includes a large number of operations. In an adult, they are abbreviated, folded. When mastering the letter, these operations are presented in expanded form.
A. R. Luria in his work “Essays on the Psychophysiology of Writing” defines the following writing operations.
The letter begins with a motivation, a motive, a task. A person knows what he writes for: to fix, save information for a certain time, transfer it to another person, induce someone to act, etc. A person mentally draws up a plan for a written statement, a semantic program, a general sequence of thoughts. The initial thought corresponds to a certain sentence structure. In the process of writing, the writer must maintain the correct order of writing the phrase, focus on what he has already written and what he has to write.
Each sentence to be written is broken down into its constituent words, as the writing indicates the boundaries of each word.
One of the most difficult operations of the writing process is the analysis of the sound structure of a word. To spell a word correctly, you need to determine its sound structure, the sequence and place of each sound. The sound analysis of a word is carried out by the joint activity of the speech-auditory and speech-motor analyzers. An important role in determining the nature of sounds and their sequence in a word is played by pronunciation: loud, whispered or internal. The role of pronunciation in the process of writing is evidenced by many studies. So, L.K. Nazarova conducted the following experiment with children of the first grade. In the first series, they are offered an accessible text for writing. In the second series, a text similar in difficulty was given with the exception of pronunciation: in the process of writing, the children bit the tip of their tongue or opened their mouths. In this case, they made many times more mistakes than with ordinary writing.
At the initial stages of mastering the skill of writing, the role of pronunciation is very large. It helps to clarify the nature of the sound, to distinguish it from similar sounds, to determine the sequence of sounds in the word.
The next operation is the correlation of the phoneme extracted from the word with a certain visual image of the letter, which must be differentiated from all others, especially from graphically similar ones. To distinguish graphically similar letters, a sufficient level of formation of visual analysis and synthesis, spatial representations is required. The analysis and comparison of a letter is not an easy task for a first grader.
Then follows the motor operation of the writing process - the reproduction of the visual image of the letter with the help of hand movements. Simultaneously with the movement of the hand, kinesthetic control is carried out. As letters and words are written, kinesthetic control is reinforced by visual control, by reading what is written. The writing process is normally carried out on the basis of a sufficient level of formation of certain speech and non-speech functions: auditory differentiation of sounds, their correct pronunciation, language analysis and synthesis, the formation of the lexico-grammatical side of speech, visual analysis and synthesis, spatial representations.
The lack of formation of any of these functions can cause a violation of the process of mastering writing, dysgraphia.
Dysgraphia is caused by underdevelopment (decay) of higher mental functions that carry out the process of writing normally.
The following terms are mainly used to refer to violations of the letter: dysgraphia, agraphia, dysorphography, evolutionary dysgraphia.
The causes of reading and writing disorders are similar.
In children with dysgraphia, there is a lack of formation of many higher mental functions: visual analysis and synthesis, spatial representations, auditory-pronunciation differentiation of speech sounds, phonemic, syllabic analysis and synthesis, division of sentences into words, lexico-grammatical structure of speech, memory disorders, attention , successive and simulative processes, emotional-volitional sphere.
The psycholinguistic aspect of the study of dysgraphia is not sufficiently represented in speech therapy literature. This aspect considers the mechanisms of writing disorders as a disorder of the operations of generating a written speech statement (according to A. A. Leontiev): internal programming of a coherent text, internal programming of a separate sentence, grammatical structuring, phoneme selection operations, phonemic analysis of words, etc. (E. M. Gopichenko, E. F. Sobotovich).
Dysgraphia classification
Dysgraphia classification is carried out on the basis of various criteria: taking into account disturbed analyzers, mental functions, unformed writing operations.
O. A. Tokareva identifies 3 types of dysgraphia: acoustic, optical, motor.
With acoustic dysgraphia there is an undifferentiated auditory perception, insufficient development of sound analysis and synthesis. Mixings and omissions, replacement of letters denoting sounds that are similar in articulation and sound, as well as reflection of incorrect sound pronunciation in writing are common.
Optical dysgraphia due to the instability of visual impressions and ideas. Individual letters are not recognized, do not correspond to certain sounds. Letters are perceived differently at different times. Due to the inaccuracy of visual perception, they are mixed in writing. The most commonly observed mixtures of the following handwritten letters:
In severe cases of optical dysgraphia, writing words is impossible. The child writes only single letters. In some cases, especially for left-handed people, there is a mirror letter, when words, letters, elements of letters are written from right to left.
Motor dysgraphia. It is characterized by difficulties in hand movement during writing, a violation of the connection of motor images of sounds and words with visual images.
Modern psychological and psycholinguistic study of the writing process indicates that it is a complex form of speech activity, including a large number of operations at various levels: semantic, linguistic, sensorimotor. In this regard, the allocation of types of dysgraphia on the basis of violations of the analyzer level is currently insufficiently substantiated.
The types of dysgraphia identified by M.E. Khvattsev also do not satisfy today's understanding of writing disorders. Consider them
1. Dysgraphia on the basis of acoustic agnosia and defects in phonemic hearing. In this form, the write-off is preserved.
The physiological mechanism of the defect is a violation of the associative links between vision and hearing, there are omissions, permutations, substitutions of letters, as well as the merging of two words into one, omissions of words, etc.
This type is based on the non-differentiation of the auditory perception of the sound composition of the word, the insufficiency of phonemic analysis.
2. Dysgraphia due to speech disorders("graphic tongue-tied"). According to M. E. Khvattsev, it arises on the basis of incorrect sound pronunciation. The replacement of some sounds by others, the absence of sounds in pronunciation cause corresponding substitutions and omissions of sounds in writing. M. E. Khvattsev also singles out a special form due to the “experienced” tongue-tied tongue (when the violation of sound pronunciation disappeared before the start of literacy or after the start of mastering writing). The more severe the violation of pronunciation, the coarser and more varied the writing errors. The allocation of this type of dysgraphia is recognized as justified at the present time.
3. Dysgraphia on the basis of a violation of the pronunciation rhythm. M. E. Khvattsev believes that as a result of a disorder in the pronunciation rhythm, omissions of vowels, syllables, and endings appear in writing. Errors can be caused either by the underdevelopment of phonemic analysis and synthesis, or by distortions in the sound-syllabic structure of the word.
4. Optical dysgraphia. It is caused by a violation or underdevelopment of the optical speech systems in the brain. The formation of a visual image of a letter or word is disturbed. With literal dysgraphia, the visual image of a letter is disturbed in a child, distortions and replacements of isolated letters are observed. With verbal dysgraphia, the writing of isolated letters is safe, but the visual image of the word is hardly formed, the child writes words with gross errors.
With optical dysgraphia, the child does not distinguish similar graphically handwritten letters: P- to, p. - and, with- oh and- w, l- m.
5. Dysgraphia in motor and sensory aphasia manifests itself in substitutions, distortions of the structure of a word, a sentence, and is determined by the disintegration of oral speech due to organic damage to the brain.
The most reasonable is the classification of dysgraphia, which is based on the lack of formation of certain operations of the writing process (developed by the staff of the Department of Speech Therapy of the Leningrad State Pedagogical Institute named after A. I. Herzen). The following types of dysgraphies are distinguished: articulatory-acoustic, based on violations of phonemic recognition(differentiation of phonemes), on the basis of violations of language analysis and synthesis, agrammatic and optical dysgraphia.
1. Articulatory-acoustic dysgraphia in many ways similar to the dysgraphia identified by M. E. Khvattsev on the basis of oral speech disorders.
The child writes as he speaks. It is based on the reflection of incorrect pronunciation in writing, reliance on incorrect pronunciation. Relying on the incorrect pronunciation of sounds in the process of pronunciation, the child reflects his defective pronunciation in writing.
Articulatory-acoustic dysgraphia is manifested in substitutions, omissions of letters corresponding to substitutions and omissions of sounds in oral speech. Most often observed with dysarthria, rhinolalia, polymorphic dyslalia. Sometimes substitutions of letters in writing remain even after they are eliminated in oral speech. In this case, it can be assumed that during internal pronunciation there is not sufficient support for correct articulation, since clear kinesthetic images of sounds have not yet been formed. But substitutions and omissions of sounds are not always reflected in the letter. This is due to the fact that in some cases compensation occurs due to preserved functions (for example, due to a clear auditory differentiation, due to the formation of phonemic functions).
THE PROCESS OF READING AND WRITING.
The act of reading is a complex psychophysiological process, which is ensured by the coordination of mental activity and the specially organized function of the visual analyzer. The main function of the brain when reading is not limited to automatically registering incoming images, but is to give them certain meanings based on the context. Establishing links between the symbols of words and their meanings depends on the level of human development. It is important to note that when reading, the brain differentiates between the essential and the non-essential.
The movement of the gaze during reading occurs not only in the forward direction, that is, in general, from left to right and from top to bottom along the page, but also in the opposite direction. Such return movements are called regressions.
The visual perception of a text is not a simple "stringing" of words, but the grasping of entire segments of the text, more or less significant, and the nature of these segments is determined not so much by graphic features as by the meaning of what is being read. Elkonin D.B. emphasized that the understanding of the word when reading occurs by comparing the visual image of the word with its auditory-pronunciation image.
When reading, the word is analyzed by sight, the letters are translated into sounds and pronounced (read) in a given sequence. The expectation of meaning governs this process. A novice reader does not yet have the same graphic (visual) image of a word with his auditory and speech-motor image. Objectively, this is caused by a mismatch between the norms of writing words with the norms of pronunciation (orthoepy). The expediency of loud reading at the initial stage of schoolchildren's education and the inadmissibility of prematurely forcing children to read silently in the classroom out of a desire to maintain silence. The logic of automating the skill as it is consolidated itself assumes the student's transition from expanded (loud) reading to folded reading (silently) through the stage of reading in a whisper. The teacher observes and directs the individual pace of skill formation, organizing appropriate methods of working with students. While mastering the methods of speed reading in the future, readers (in order to increase the speed of reading) deliberately cultivate the skill of suppressing hidden articulations. At this stage of improving the reading technique, the meaning of words and phrases is directly related to their graphic image.
Depending on the level of reading technique and the conditions of the course of the latter, the ratio in time of the moment of reading and recognition of the word varies.
There is a guess within a word, a phrase, and also within the context, when the reader can anticipate the further course of the author's thought. The roots of such a guess lie in a clear understanding of the meaning of what has just been read. Already the title of a story or the topic of an article often determines the vector of thought, denoting a certain range of issues.
Thus, the basis for conjecture moves either towards the perception of the graphic image of the word, then towards its comprehension.
Luria A.R. defined reading as a special form of impressive speech, and writing as a special form of expressive speech, noting that writing begins with a certain idea, the preservation of which contributes to the inhibition of all extraneous tendencies. The letter itself includes a number of specific operations:
*analysis of the sound composition of the word to be
entries:
- determining the sequence of sounds in a word;
- clarification of sounds, i.e. the transformation of sound variants audible at the moment into clear generalized speech sounds - phonemes. At first, both of these processes proceed completely consciously, in the future they are automated. Acoustic analysis and synthesis proceeds with the closest participation of articulation;
* translation of phonemes (audible sounds) into graphemes, i.e. into visual schemes of graphic signs, taking into account the spatial arrangement of their elements;
* "recoding" of the visual schemes of letters into a kinetic system of successive movements necessary for recording (graphemes are translated into kinems).
The motivational level of writing is provided by the frontal lobes of the cerebral cortex. Including them in a functional writing system ensures the creation of an idea that is held through inner speech. Retention of information in memory is ensured by the holistic activity of the brain.
When the eye and hand are actively involved in the process of writing, the question of the interaction of the auditory, visual, speech-motor and motor components of writing becomes of particular importance.
Every child, regardless of the teaching method applied to him, inevitably goes through several phases. At the first stage of learning, the student writes large, and this is due not only to the roughness of his spatial coordination. The reason is that the larger the letter, the smaller the relative difference between the movements of the writing tip and the movement of the hand itself, i.e. the easier and more accessible the re-encryption.
Only as this recoding is mastered does the child begin to transfer first visual and then proprioceptive corrections to the writing point, acquiring the ability to automatically provide him with any required trajectory. Due to this, the size of the written letters gradually decreases.
Simultaneously with this process, the development of writing along the line is also taking place. The movement of the forearm, leading the writing instrument along the line, is gradually transferred from the competence of visual control to the area of proprioceptive. Then the even arrangement and direction of the lines are already successful on unmarked paper.
The most difficult thing is to master cursive writing itself. At the same time, the correct distribution of pressures is mastered, i.e. force control along the third coordinate, perpendicular to the plane of the paper. Real cursive writing is developed only through long practice.
The purpose of the initial period of literacy education is the formation of a complex unity, including ideas about the acoustic, articulatory, optical and kinetic image of the word.
Dysgraphia - this is a partial specific violation of the writing process. Writing is a complex form of speech activity, a multi-level process. Various analyzers take part in it: speech-auditory, speech-motor, visual, general motor. Between them in the process of writing a close connection and interdependence is established. The structure of this process is determined by the stage of mastering the skill, tasks and nature of writing. Writing is closely connected with the process of oral speech and is carried out only on the basis of a sufficiently high level of its development. The writing process of an adult is automated and differs from the nature of the writing of a child who masters this skill. So, for an adult, writing is a purposeful activity, the main purpose of which is to convey meaning or fix it. The writing process of an adult is characterized by integrity, coherence, and is a synthetic process. The graphic image of the word is reproduced not by individual elements (letters), but as a whole. The word is reproduced by a single motor act. The process of writing is carried out automatically and proceeds under double control: kinesthetic and visual.
Writing Process Operations
Automated hand movements are the final step in the complex process of translating spoken language into written language. This is preceded by a complex activity that prepares the final stage. The writing process has a multi-level structure, includes a large number of operations. In an adult, they are abbreviated, folded. When mastering the letter, these operations are presented in expanded form.
A. R. Luria in his work “Essays on the Psychophysiology of Writing” defines the following writing operations.
The letter begins with a motivation, a motive, a task. A person knows what he writes for: to fix, save information for a certain time, transfer it to another person, induce someone to act, etc. A person mentally draws up a plan for a written statement, a semantic program, a general sequence of thoughts. The initial thought corresponds to a certain sentence structure. In the process of writing, the writer must maintain the correct order of writing the phrase, focus on what he has already written and what he has to write.
Each sentence to be written is broken down into its constituent words, as the writing indicates the boundaries of each word.
One of the most difficult operations of the writing process is the analysis of the sound structure of a word. To spell a word correctly, you need to determine its sound structure, the sequence and place of each sound. The sound analysis of a word is carried out by the joint activity of the speech-auditory and speech-motor analyzers. An important role in determining the nature of sounds and their sequence in a word is played by pronunciation: loud, whispered or internal. The role of pronunciation in the process of writing is evidenced by many studies. So, L.K. Nazarova conducted the following experiment with children of the first grade. In the first series, they are offered an accessible text for writing. In the second series, a text similar in difficulty was given with the exception of pronunciation: in the process of writing, the children bit the tip of their tongue or opened their mouths. In this case, they made many times more mistakes than with ordinary writing.
At the initial stages of mastering the skill of writing, the role of pronunciation is very large. It helps to clarify the nature of the sound, to distinguish it from similar sounds, to determine the sequence of sounds in the word.
The next operation is the correlation of the phoneme extracted from the word with a certain visual image of the letter, which must be differentiated from all others, especially from graphically similar ones. To distinguish graphically similar letters, a sufficient level of formation of visual analysis and synthesis, spatial representations is required. The analysis and comparison of a letter is not an easy task for a first grader.
Then follows the motor operation of the writing process - the reproduction of the visual image of the letter with the help of hand movements. Simultaneously with the movement of the hand, kinesthetic control is carried out. As letters and words are written, kinesthetic control is reinforced by visual control, by reading what is written. The writing process is normally carried out on the basis of a sufficient level of formation of certain speech and non-speech functions: auditory differentiation of sounds, their correct pronunciation, language analysis and synthesis, the formation of the lexico-grammatical side of speech, visual analysis and synthesis, spatial representations.
The lack of formation of any of these functions can cause a violation of the process of mastering writing, dysgraphia.
Dysgraphia is caused by underdevelopment (decay) of higher mental functions that carry out the process of writing normally.
The following terms are mainly used to refer to violations of the letter: dysgraphia, agraphia, dysorphography, evolutionary dysgraphia.
The causes of reading and writing disorders are similar.
In children with dysgraphia, there is a lack of formation of many higher mental functions: visual analysis and synthesis, spatial representations, auditory-pronunciation differentiation of speech sounds, phonemic, syllabic analysis and synthesis, division of sentences into words, lexico-grammatical structure of speech, memory disorders, attention , successive and simulative processes, emotional-volitional sphere.
The psycholinguistic aspect of the study of dysgraphia is not sufficiently represented in speech therapy literature. This aspect considers the mechanisms of writing disorders as a disorder of the operations of generating a written speech statement (according to A. A. Leontiev): internal programming of a coherent text, internal programming of a separate sentence, grammatical structuring, phoneme selection operations, phonemic analysis of words, etc. (E. M. Gopichenko, E. F. Sobotovich).
Dysgraphia classification
Dysgraphia classification is carried out on the basis of various criteria: taking into account disturbed analyzers, mental functions, unformed writing operations.
O. A. Tokareva identifies 3 types of dysgraphia: acoustic, optical, motor.
With acoustic dysgraphia there is an undifferentiated auditory perception, insufficient development of sound analysis and synthesis. Mixings and omissions, replacement of letters denoting sounds that are similar in articulation and sound, as well as reflection of incorrect sound pronunciation in writing are common.
Optical dysgraphia due to the instability of visual impressions and ideas. Individual letters are not recognized, do not correspond to certain sounds. Letters are perceived differently at different times. Due to the inaccuracy of visual perception, they are mixed in writing. The most commonly observed mixtures of the following handwritten letters:
In severe cases of optical dysgraphia, writing words is impossible. The child writes only single letters. In some cases, especially for left-handed people, there is a mirror letter, when words, letters, elements of letters are written from right to left.
Motor dysgraphia. It is characterized by difficulties in hand movement during writing, a violation of the connection of motor images of sounds and words with visual images.
Modern psychological and psycholinguistic study of the writing process indicates that it is a complex form of speech activity, including a large number of operations at various levels: semantic, linguistic, sensorimotor. In this regard, the allocation of types of dysgraphia on the basis of violations of the analyzer level is currently insufficiently substantiated.
The types of dysgraphia identified by M.E. Khvattsev also do not satisfy today's understanding of writing disorders. Consider them
1. Dysgraphia on the basis of acoustic agnosia and defects in phonemic hearing. In this form, the write-off is preserved.
The physiological mechanism of the defect is a violation of the associative links between vision and hearing, there are omissions, permutations, substitutions of letters, as well as the merging of two words into one, omissions of words, etc.
This type is based on the non-differentiation of the auditory perception of the sound composition of the word, the insufficiency of phonemic analysis.
2. Dysgraphia due to speech disorders("graphic tongue-tied"). According to M. E. Khvattsev, it arises on the basis of incorrect sound pronunciation. The replacement of some sounds by others, the absence of sounds in pronunciation cause corresponding substitutions and omissions of sounds in writing. M. E. Khvattsev also singles out a special form due to the “experienced” tongue-tied tongue (when the violation of sound pronunciation disappeared before the start of literacy or after the start of mastering writing). The more severe the violation of pronunciation, the coarser and more varied the writing errors. The allocation of this type of dysgraphia is recognized as justified at the present time.
3. Dysgraphia on the basis of a violation of the pronunciation rhythm. M. E. Khvattsev believes that as a result of a disorder in the pronunciation rhythm, omissions of vowels, syllables, and endings appear in writing. Errors can be caused either by the underdevelopment of phonemic analysis and synthesis, or by distortions in the sound-syllabic structure of the word.
4. Optical dysgraphia. It is caused by a violation or underdevelopment of the optical speech systems in the brain. The formation of a visual image of a letter or word is disturbed. With literal dysgraphia, the visual image of a letter is disturbed in a child, distortions and replacements of isolated letters are observed. With verbal dysgraphia, the writing of isolated letters is safe, but the visual image of the word is hardly formed, the child writes words with gross errors.
With optical dysgraphia, the child does not distinguish similar graphically handwritten letters: P- to, p. - and, with- oh and- w, l- m.
5. Dysgraphia in motor and sensory aphasia manifests itself in substitutions, distortions of the structure of a word, a sentence, and is determined by the disintegration of oral speech due to organic damage to the brain.
The most reasonable is the classification of dysgraphia, which is based on the lack of formation of certain operations of the writing process (developed by the staff of the Department of Speech Therapy of the Leningrad State Pedagogical Institute named after A. I. Herzen). The following types of dysgraphies are distinguished: articulatory-acoustic, based on violations of phonemic recognition(differentiation of phonemes), on the basis of violations of language analysis and synthesis, agrammatic and optical dysgraphia.
1. Articulatory-acoustic dysgraphia in many ways similar to the dysgraphia identified by M. E. Khvattsev on the basis of oral speech disorders.
The child writes as he speaks. It is based on the reflection of incorrect pronunciation in writing, reliance on incorrect pronunciation. Relying on the incorrect pronunciation of sounds in the process of pronunciation, the child reflects his defective pronunciation in writing.
Articulatory-acoustic dysgraphia is manifested in substitutions, omissions of letters corresponding to substitutions and omissions of sounds in oral speech. Most often observed with dysarthria, rhinolalia, polymorphic dyslalia. Sometimes substitutions of letters in writing remain even after they are eliminated in oral speech. In this case, it can be assumed that during internal pronunciation there is not sufficient support for correct articulation, since clear kinesthetic images of sounds have not yet been formed. But substitutions and omissions of sounds are not always reflected in the letter. This is due to the fact that in some cases compensation occurs due to preserved functions (for example, due to a clear auditory differentiation, due to the formation of phonemic functions).
2. Dysgraphia based on phonemic recognition disorders(differentiation of phonemes). In traditional terminology - it acoustic dysgraphia.
It manifests itself in the substitutions of letters corresponding to phonetically close sounds. At the same time, in oral speech, the sounds are pronounced correctly. Most often, letters are replaced denoting the following sounds: whistling and hissing, voiced and deaf, affricates and their components (h - t, h- u, c - t, c- With). This type of dysgraphia is also manifested in the incorrect designation of the softness of consonants in writing due to a violation of the differentiation of hard and soft consonants (“letter”, “lubit”, “licking”). Frequent mistakes are vowel substitutions even in stressed position, for example, o - at(tuma - “dot”), e- and(forest - "foxes").
In the most striking form, dysgraphia based on violations of phonemic recognition is observed with sensory alalia and aphasia. In severe cases, letters are mixed, denoting distant articulatory and acoustic sounds (l - k, b- c, p- To). At the same time, the pronunciation of sounds corresponding to the mixed letters is normal.
There is no consensus on the mechanisms of this type of dysgraphia. This is due to the complexity of the process of phonemic recognition.
According to researchers (I. A. Zimnyaya, E. F. Sobotovich, L. A. Chistovich), the multilevel process of phonemic recognition includes various operations.
1. During perception, an auditory analysis of speech is carried out (analytical decomposition of a synthetic sound image, selection of acoustic features with their subsequent synthesis).
2. The acoustic image is translated into an articulatory solution, which is ensured by proporioceptive analysis, the preservation of kinesthetic perception and ideas.
3. Auditory and kinesthetic images are held for the time needed to make a decision.
4. The sound is correlated with the phoneme, the phoneme selection operation takes place.
5. On the basis of auditory and kinesthetic control, a comparison with the sample is carried out and then a final decision is made.
In the process of writing, the phoneme is associated with a certain visual image of the letter.
Correct writing requires a finer auditory differentiation of sounds than oral speech. This is connected, on the one hand, with the phenomenon of redundancy in the perception of semantically significant units of oral speech. A slight insufficiency of auditory differentiation in oral speech, if it occurs, can be replenished due to redundancy, due to motor stereotypes and kinesthetic images fixed in speech experience. In the process of writing, for the correct distinction and choice of a phoneme, a subtle analysis of all acoustic features of sound, which are semantic-distinctive, is necessary.
On the other hand, in the process of writing, the differentiation of sounds, the choice of phonemes are carried out on the basis of trace activity, auditory images, and presentation. Due to the fuzziness of auditory ideas about phonetically close sounds, the choice of one or another phoneme is difficult, which results in the replacement of letters in writing.
Other authors (E. F. Sobotovich, E. M. Gopichenko), who have studied writing disorders in mentally retarded children, attribute the substitution of letters to the fact that during phonemic recognition, children rely on articulatory signs of sounds and do not use auditory control.
In contrast to these studies, R. Becker and A. Kossovsky consider the difficulties of kinesthetic analysis to be the main mechanism for replacing letters denoting phonetically close sounds. Their research shows that children with dysgraphia do not use enough kinesthetic sensations (speaking) when writing. They are not helped much by pronunciation both during auditory dictation and during independent writing. The exclusion of pronunciation (the method of L.K. Nazarova) does not affect the number of errors, i.e., does not lead to their increase. At the same time, the exclusion of pronunciation while writing in children without dysgraphia leads to an increase in writing errors by 8-9 times.
For correct writing, a sufficient level of functioning of all operations of the process of distinguishing and choosing phonemes is necessary. If any link (auditory, kinesthetic analysis, phoneme selection, auditory and kinesthetic control) is violated, the whole process of phonemic recognition becomes more difficult, which is manifested in the replacement of letters in writing. Therefore, taking into account the disturbed operations of phonemic recognition, the following subspecies of this form of dysgraphia can be distinguished: acoustic, kinesthetic, phonemic.
3. Dysgraphia on the basis of a violation of language analysis and synthesis. It is based on the violation of various forms of linguistic analysis and synthesis: the division of sentences into words, syllabic and phonemic analysis and synthesis. The underdevelopment of linguistic analysis and synthesis is manifested in writing in distortions of the structure of the word and sentence. The most complex form of language analysis is phonemic analysis. As a result, distortions of the sound-letter structure of the word will be especially common in this type of dysgraphia.
The following errors are most typical: omissions of consonants during their confluence (dictation- "dikat", school- "cola"); omission of vowels (dog- "dog", Houses- "dma"); permutations of letters (trail- "prota", window- "kono"); adding letters (drag- "shuffled"); omissions, additions, permutation of syllables (room- "cat", Cup- "kata").
For the correct mastery of the process of writing, it is necessary that the phonemic analysis be formed in the child not only in the external, speech, but also in the internal plan, according to the idea.
Violation of the division of sentences into words in this type of dysgraphia is manifested in the continuous spelling of words, especially prepositions, with other words (it's raining- "going", in the House- "in the House"); separate spelling of a word (white birch grows by the window- "belabe will zaratet eye"); separate spelling of the prefix and the root of the word (come- "stepped on").
Writing disorders due to the lack of formation of phonemic analysis and synthesis are widely represented in the works of R. E. Levina, N. A. Nikashina, D. I. Orlova, G. V. Chirkina.
4. Agrammatic dysgraphia(characterized in the works of R. E. Levina, I. K. Kolpovskaya, R. I. Lalayeva, S. B. Yakovlev). It is associated with the underdevelopment of the grammatical structure of speech: morphological, syntactic generalizations. This type of dysgraphia can manifest itself at the level of a word, phrase, sentence and text and is an integral part of a wider symptom complex - lexical and grammatical underdevelopment, which is observed in children with dysarthria, alalia and in mentally retarded children.
In coherent written speech, children have great difficulties in establishing logical and linguistic connections between sentences. The sequence of sentences does not always correspond to the sequence of the described events; semantic and grammatical connections between individual sentences are violated.
At the sentence level, agrammatisms in writing are manifested in the distortion of the morphological structure of the word, the replacement of prefixes, suffixes (overwhelmed- "lashed" kids- "goats"); changing case endings (“many trees”); violation of prepositional constructions (over the table- "on the table"); case change of pronouns (about him- "near him"); number of nouns ("children are running"); violation of agreement (“white house”); there is also a violation of the syntactic design of speech, which manifests itself in the difficulties of constructing complex sentences, skipping members of a sentence, and violating the sequence of words in a sentence.
5. Optical dysgraphia associated with the underdevelopment of visual gnosis, analysis and synthesis, spatial representations and is manifested in the substitutions and distortions of letters in writing.
Most often, graphically similar handwritten letters are replaced: consisting of the same elements, but differently located in space (
At literary dysgraphia there is a violation of recognition and reproduction of even isolated letters. At verbal dysgraphia isolated letters are reproduced correctly, however, when writing a word, distortions are observed, replacements of letters of an optical nature. TO optical dysgraphia also applies to mirror writing, which is sometimes noted in left-handers, as well as in organic brain lesions.
SYMPTOMS OF DYSGRAPHY
The symptomatology of dysgraphia is manifested in persistent and repetitive errors in the writing process, which can be grouped as follows: distortion and replacement of letters; distortion of the sound-syllabic structure of the word; violations of the continuity of writing individual words in a sentence; agrammatisms in writing.
Dysgraphia can also be accompanied by non-speech symptoms (neurological disorders, impaired cognitive activity, perception, attention memory, mental disorders). Non-speech symptoms are determined in these cases not by the nature of dysgraphia and, therefore, are not included in its symptoms, but, together with impaired writing, are included in the structure of neuropsychic and speech disorders (with alalia, dysarthria, speech disorders with mental retardation, etc.).
Dysgraphia (as well as dyslexia) in children with normal intelligence can cause various deviations in personality formation, certain mental layers.
With a targeted corrective and speech therapy impact, the symptoms of dysgraphia are gradually smoothed out.
handwritten speech- a proven, reliable and affordable means of communication for centuries. Neither printing devices nor sound recording is able to replace for a literate person the simple art of writing.
"Written speech- there is a higher quality of personality than even the most perfect "calligraphy", - wrote Sh.A. Amonashvili. In the modern method of teaching writing, "calligraphy" is understood as the ability to write in a clear, stable, readable handwriting. Together with the "purely technical skill" (drawing letters on paper), there is a formation of an idea of the literal notation of a word, reflecting the relationship between meaning and form, that is, an automated mode of action is being formed - a graphic skill.
The writing process of an adult is automated and differs from the nature of the writing of a child who masters this skill. So, for an adult, writing is a purposeful activity, the main purpose of which is the transfer of meaning or its fixation. The writing process of an adult is characterized by integrity, coherence, and is a synthetic process. The graphic image of the word is reproduced not by individual elements (letters), but as a whole. The word is reproduced by a single motor act. The process of writing is carried out automatically and proceeds under double control: kinesthetic and visual.
Automated hand movements are the final step in the complex process of translating spoken language into written language. This is preceded by a complex activity that prepares the final stage. The writing process has a multi-level structure, includes a large number of operations. In an adult, they are abbreviated; twisted character. When writing is mastered, these operations appear in expanded form.
The process of writing—whether it be dictation, freehand writing, or even copywriting—is far from being a simple psychological act.
However different the psychological mechanisms of the processes of writing in each of the cases just mentioned, each process of writing includes many common elements in its composition.
A letter always begins with a known task, which either occurs to the writer or is assumed by him. If a student has to write a dictated word or phrase, this idea boils down to ensuring that, after listening to the text, write it with all accuracy and correctness. If the student has to write a free statement or letter, the idea is first limited to a certain thought, which is later formed into a phrase, those words that should be written first are already selected from the phrase. At the beginning of the development of a skill, the idea most often comes down to writing this or that word or a short phrase, and only behind this immediate task does a more general idea vaguely emerge - the recording of a whole phrase or thought. At the later stages of skill development, this task is reduced to a written presentation of the content, to the formulation of a whole thought; intermediate operations, as was said, can proceed unconsciously and only in some cases are shifted to the analysis of the words to be written or the grammatical structure of the recorded phrase.
Under all conditions, the main task - the thought to be formulated or the phrase to be recorded - must be remembered, it must be separated from all other extraneous factors. The writer must maintain the correct order of writing the phrase; should always be focused on where he is, what has already been written by him and what remains to be written. Without this, each break in the letter would destroy the desired sequence, and each pause would lead to the destruction of the plan. The idea would be invaded by random moments anticipated by the writer, or the student would suddenly begin to write down elements that had moved from the end of a word or phrase, or he would repeat several times a word, syllable or letter already written by him. This really happens in a state of absent-mindedness, when the ability to clearly formulate a thought and follow the desired sequence of words disappears.
All this suggests that the idea, which is to be turned into a detailed phrase, must not only be retained, but with the help of inner speech, in the future, it must be turned into a detailed structure of the phrase, the parts of which must retain their order. This also means that the preservation of the planned scheme of that phrase or that word that should be written down must necessarily slow down all extraneous tendencies - both running ahead and prematurely writing this or that word or sound, and repeating an already written word or sound, its " perseveration".
The first of the special operations included in the writing process itself is
1) analysis of the sound composition of the word to be written. From the sound stream perceived and mentally represented by a person writing to dictation, a series of sounds should be distinguished, first those with which the desired word begins, and then the subsequent ones. This task is not always easy. Only in such words, which consist of a number of open syllables, pronounced quite separately (as, for example; Ma-sha or do-ro-ha ) successive isolation of sounds proceeds relatively easily. In words that include closed syllables, and even more so in words that include a confluence of consonants, a series of unstressed vowels, this selection of the desired sequence of sounds becomes a more difficult task. It becomes even more complicated in those cases when the child tries to repeat the desired word several times in a row, not dividing it into separate syllables, but grasping it as a whole, “globally”. Then - as it often happens - unstressed vowels can be dropped, a strong-sounding syllable is moved to the beginning, and weak-sounding syllables are skipped altogether. Sometimes the syllables are rearranged, and in the child’s writing those defects naturally arise that manifested themselves in oral speech at the first stages of its development and which are known in psychology under the name of anticipation (anticipations), for example: “onko” or “kono” instead of a window; elision (omissions, omissions), for example: "poppy" instead of carrots, "moko" instead of milk, perseverations (jamming, repetition of individual sounds); contamination (alloys of two complex syllables into one, which includes elements of each of these syllables) and permutations.
The selection of a sequence of sounds that make up a word is the first condition for dismembering a speech stream, in other words, for turning it into a series of articulate sounds.
The second condition, closely related to the previous one, is the refinement of sounds, the transformation of sound variants heard at the moment into clear, generalized speech sounds - phonemes (a "phoneme" is a stable sound of speech, the change of which changes the meaning of the word (for example, d Unlike T in words: daughter and dot).
Only in cases where the word consists of distinctly and unambiguously sounding elements (as is the case, for example, in the words Ma-sha or balls), the establishment of sounds occurs without difficulty. Much more difficult are those cases when the consonant enters either a soft or a hard syllable, and when, for example, in completely different-sounding versions of the consonant, then, that, those, and ti need to be distracted from these audible options, to perceive the same phoneme m. Difficulties similar to this also arise in cases where a change in only one feature (for example, voicedness) turns one language into a completely different one (for example, d in t, s in s) and when, therefore, the child must distinguish the desired phoneme, separating it from a similar one in sound.
The child masters all this, however, easily, and only sometimes such mistakes as “chicks” instead of chickens speak of the residual difficulties encountered in this task.
Much greater difficulties are associated with the task of differentiating consonant clusters and distinguishing between individual elements that make up complex sound complexes.