How to help a child with writing and reading disorders? Letter violation. Correction of dysgraphia Partial violation of the writing process manifested

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"Silence reigns in the dormant forest,

Thorns of the carcass zatya zero sonse,

Birds flap all day long.

Rutzey grind rivers "

“What are those interesting words?” - you ask, and you will be right, because there are no such words in our language. Meanwhile, this is quite a Russian language, albeit a strange one. And children write such words in their notebooks and copybooks (most often - younger students, but more on that later), suffering from a special disorder called "dysgraphia". Next, we will talk about what this deviation is, how it manifests itself and is diagnosed and how to treat it.

What is dysgraphia

Dysgraphia is a pathological condition in which there is a disorder in the writing process. About 50% of junior schoolchildren and about 35% of secondary school students are familiar with this disease firsthand. Also, this pathology can develop in adults (10% of all cases), in which, due to any reason, the work of higher mental functions was disrupted. In addition, this disorder is closely related to - a deviation in the process of reading, because both reading and writing are two components of one mental process.

History of dysgraphia

As an independent pathology, writing and reading disorders were first identified by the German therapist Adolf Kussmaul in 1877. After that, many works appeared, which described various violations of writing and reading in children. However, they were considered as one writing disorder, and some scientists pointed out that it is generally a sign of dementia and is characteristic only of retarded children.

But already in 1896, the therapist W. Pringle Morgan described the case of a 14-year-old boy who had a completely normal intellect, but there were violations of writing and reading (it was a question of dyslexia). After that, other researchers began to study the violation of writing and reading as an independent pathology, in no way connected with mental retardation. A little later (in the early 1900s), the scientist D. Ginshelwood introduced the terms "alexia" and "agraphia", denoting severe and mild forms of the disorder.

As time went on, the understanding of the nature of writing and reading deviation changed. It was no longer defined as a uniform optical disturbance; different concepts began to be used: “alexia” and “dyslexia”, “agraphia” and “dysgraphia”; began to distinguish different forms and classifications of dysgraphia (and, of course, dyslexia).

Subsequently, disorders in the process of writing and reading began to be studied by an increasing number of specialists, including domestic ones. The most significant were the works of neuropathologists Samuil Semenovich Mnukhin and Roman Aleksandrovich Tkachev. According to Tkachev, the basis of disorders is mnestic disorders (memory disorders), and according to the ideas of Mnukhin, their common psychopathological basis lies in the violation of structure formation.

In the end, in the 30s of the 20th century, defectologists, teachers and psychologists began to study dysgraphia (and dyslexia), such as R. E. Levin, R. M. Boskis, M. E. Khvattsev, F. A. Rau and others . If we talk about modern scientists and more specifically about dysgraphia, then L. G. Nevolina, A. N. Kornev, S. S. Lyapidevsky, S. N. Shakhovskaya and others made a significant contribution to its study. Based on the results of their research, we will continue our article.

Causes of dysgraphia

Despite in-depth study, the causes of dysgraphia have not been clarified with absolute accuracy even today. But certain data is still available. For example, the above scientists say that writing disorders can be caused by:

• Biological causes: heredity, damage or underdevelopment of the brain at different periods of child development, pathology of pregnancy, fetal trauma, asphyxia, serious somatic diseases, infections that affect the nervous system.
• Socio-psychological reasons: hospitalism syndrome (disorders caused by a long stay of a person in a hospital away from home and family), pedagogical neglect, lack of speech contacts, education in bilingual families.
• Social and environmental causes: overestimated requirements for literacy in relation to the child, incorrectly determined (too early) age of literacy, incorrectly chosen pace and teaching methods.

As you know, a person begins to master the skills of writing when all the components of his oral speech are adequately formed: sound pronunciation, lexical and grammatical component, phonetic perception, speech coherence. If, during the formation of the brain, the violations indicated above occurred, the risk of developing dysgraphia is very high.

It is equally important to note that children with various functional impairments of the organs of hearing and vision, which cause deviations in the analysis and synthesis of information, are prone to dysgraphia. And in adults, strokes, traumatic brain injuries, neurosurgical interventions, and tumor-like processes in the brain can serve as an impetus for the development of pathology. Having a certain impact on human development, one or another of the above factors lead to dysgraphia, which can manifest itself in different forms.

Types of dysgraphia

Today, experts divide dysgraphia into five main forms, each of which depends on which particular written operation is violated or not formed:

• Acoustic dysgraphia- characterized by a violation of phonemic recognition of sounds
• Articulatory-acoustic dysgraphia- characterized by a violation of articulation and perception of phonemics (phonemic hearing), as well as difficulties in sound pronunciation
• Agrammatic dysgraphia- characterized by problems in the lexical development and development of the grammatical structure of speech
• Optical dysgraphia- characterized by undeveloped visual-spatial perception
• A special form of dysgraphia, due to the lack of formation of language synthesis

In practice, any kind of dysgraphia in its pure form is quite rare, because. in most cases, dysgraphia takes a mixed form, but with a predominance of one type. You can install it according to characteristic features.

Symptoms of dysgraphia

Like any speech pathology disorder, dysgraphia has a number of its own symptoms. As a rule, it makes itself felt systematic, but a person makes these mistakes by no means out of ignorance of language norms and rules. In most cases, errors are manifested in the replacement or displacement of similar sounds or similar letters, omissions of letters and syllables in words or changing their places, adding extra letters. There is also a continuous spelling of many words and a lack of consistency of words and word forms in sentences. At the same time, there is a low writing speed and hard-to-read handwriting.

But let's talk about the symptoms by which we can talk with a certain degree of probability about the development of a particular type of dysgraphia:

• With acoustic dysgraphia, there may not be any violations in the pronunciation of sounds, but their perception will definitely be wrong. In writing, this manifests itself in the replacement of sounds that a person hears with those that are similar to them when pronouncing, for example, whistling sounds are replaced by hissing sounds, deaf sounds by voiced ones (S-Sh, Z-Zh, etc.), etc. .
• With articulatory-acoustic dysgraphia, errors in writing are specifically related to the incorrect pronunciation of sounds. A person writes exactly as he hears. As a rule, such symptoms occur in children who have an underdeveloped phonetic-phonemic side of speech. By the way, errors in dysgraphia of this type will be similar both in pronunciation and in writing (for example, if a child says “funny zayas”, he will write in exactly the same way).
• With agrammatic dysgraphia, words change in cases, declensions are confused, the child is not able to determine the number and gender (for example, “bright sun”, “good aunt”, “three bears”, etc.). Sentences are distinguished by inconsistency in the wording, some members of the sentence may even be omitted. As for speech, it is inhibited and underdeveloped.
• With optical dysgraphia, the letters are mixed and replaced with those that are visually similar to the correct ones. Here one should distinguish between literal optical dysgraphia (isolated letters are incorrectly reproduced) and verbal optical dysgraphia (letters in words are incorrectly reproduced). Most often, the letters are “mirrored”, extra elements are added to them or the necessary ones are not written (for example, T is written as P, L - like M, A - like D), etc.)
• With dysgraphia, due to the lack of formation of language synthesis, the child swaps letters and syllables, does not add the endings of words or adds extra ones, writes prepositions together with words, and separates prefixes from them (for example, “na went”, “table”, etc. ). This type of dysgraphia is considered the most common among schoolchildren.

Among other things, people with dysgraphia may also have symptoms that are not related to speech therapy. Usually these are disorders and disorders of a neurological nature, such as low performance, increased distractibility, memory impairment, hyperactivity.

With the systematic manifestation of the symptoms considered, it is necessary to contact a specialist who can conduct a full diagnosis and distinguish pathology from banal illiteracy. This specialist is a speech pathologist. By the way, keep in mind that the diagnosis of "dysgraphia" is made only if the child already has writing skills, i.e. before the age of 9. Otherwise, the diagnosis may be erroneous.

Diagnosis of dysgraphia

As we said, to diagnose dysgraphia, you need to visit a speech therapist. However, consultation with other specialists is very important. Such specialists include a psychologist, ophthalmologist, neurologist, ENT. They will help eliminate defects in the organs of vision and hearing, as well as mental disorders. Only after that, a speech therapist, having studied the symptoms, can establish that dysgraphia is developing and determine its type.

Diagnostic measures are always carried out in a complex and phased manner. Written works are analyzed, general and speech development, the state of the central nervous system, organs of vision and hearing, speech motor skills and articulatory apparatus are assessed. To analyze written speech, a specialist can offer a child to rewrite a printed or handwritten text, write down a text from dictation, describe a plot from a drawing, and read aloud. Based on the data obtained, a protocol is drawn up, and the doctor makes a conclusion.

In the diagnosis, the time at which it takes place also plays a huge role. It is best to seek advice at the lowest possible age (preferably in kindergarten) in order to be able to start correcting the deviation in its early stages. If the necessary measures are not taken in childhood, dysgraphia will manifest itself in adulthood, and it will be much more problematic to eliminate it.

Correction and treatment of dysgraphia

Unlike Western countries, where special programs have been developed for the treatment and correction of dysgraphia, there are no such programs in Russia yet. That is why corrective measures should begin already at kindergarten age, and include special methods and techniques that speech therapists own. But with the help of a regular school program, it will not be possible to eliminate dysgraphia. Actually, no one can completely eliminate the deviation - such is its specificity. However, it is still possible to bring the writing skill closer to the ideal.

Corrective programs are necessarily developed taking into account the individual characteristics of each individual case and, of course, the form of violation. To correct the deviation, the specialist develops a system for filling in the gaps in the processes important for the formation of writing skills, and works on the development of speech and its coherence. Also, tasks are given for the formation of grammar and the development of a lexicon, spatial and auditory perception is corrected, thought processes and memory develop. All this leads to the development of writing skills.

In addition to the speech therapy complex, doctors often use physiotherapy exercises, massage, and physiotherapy. With regard to drug treatment, its feasibility and effectiveness remain a big question.

If you decide to be directly involved in the treatment of dysgraphia in your child, use play activities. It is useful for younger students to give tasks for composing words with magnetic letters - this significantly reinforces the visual perception of the elements of the letters. And writing dictations improves auditory perception of sounds.

It is useful to play a historian with your child - when the child writes letters with pen and ink. The choice of conventional writing tools must be approached wisely. It is recommended to buy pens, pencils and felt-tip pens with a rough or uneven body, because. they massage the distal ends of the fingers, whereby additional signals are sent to the brain.

In fact, there are many options for working out writing deviations, but all of them must be discussed with a speech therapist without fail. We also recommend consulting specialized literature. Pay attention to the books of E. V. Mazanova (“Learning not to confuse letters”, “Learning not to confuse sounds”), O. V. Chistyakova (“30 lessons in Russian to prevent dysgraphia”, “Correct dysgraphia”), I. Yu. Ogloblina (Speech therapy notebooks for the correction of dysgraphia), O. M. Kovalenko (“Correction of writing disorders”), O. I. Azova (“Diagnostics and correction of writing disorders”).

These books contain a lot of useful material for self-study at home. But a quick result is hardly possible, and therefore you need to be patient and respond adequately to mistakes. Classes should be systematic, but short; Be sure to give your child the opportunity to relax, play and do things they love. Take the time to watch the video How to overcome dysgraphia”, where you can also get a lot of useful information.

In addition, we note that even if the problem of dysgraphia is not relevant for you, this does not mean that you can write it off. In order to prevent it from developing, we advise you to take preventive measures from time to time, about which a few words also need to be said.

Prevention of dysgraphia

Prevention of dysgraphia involves certain actions even before your child learns to write. They include memory, thought processes, spatial perception, visual and auditory differentiation, and other processes responsible for mastering the skill of writing.

Any, even the most insignificant violations of speech must be corrected immediately. Equally important is the child. At an older age, handwriting needs to be trained. And we also want to offer you several exercises that can be used both for prevention and for the correction of dysgraphia.

Exercises for the prevention and correction of dysgraphia

These exercises are quite suitable for children of primary school age, but can be performed by older children:

• Take a book with your child that he is not yet familiar with. It is desirable that the text be printed in a medium font, and also be a little boring so that the child's attention is not distracted by the content. Give the task to find and underline a specific letter in the text, for example C or P, O or A, etc.
• Complicate the task a little: let the child look for a specific letter and underline it, and circle or cross out the letter following it.
• Have your child mark similar paired letters such as L/M, R/P, T/P, B/D, U/U, A/U, D/Y, etc.
• Dictate a short piece of text to the child. His task is to write and speak aloud everything that he writes, exactly as it is written. At the same time, weak beats should be emphasized - those sounds that are not paid attention to when pronouncing, for example, we say: “a cup with MALAK stands on steel”, and we write: “a cup with MILK stands on the table”. It is precisely these shares that the child must emphasize. The same applies to writing and clearly pronouncing the endings of words.
• Exercise for the development of attention and gross motor skills - movements of the body, arms and legs. The bottom line is that the child draws a continuous line with a pen or pencil without changing the position of the hand and sheet. Best of all, special collections of drawings are suitable for this, the nodal points of which are marked with serial numbers for connection.
• Explain to your child the difference between hard and soft, voiceless and voiced sounds. Then give the task to select words for each of the sounds and do an analysis of the words with him: what letters, syllables and sounds they consist of. For convenience and clarity, you can use various objects.
• Practice your child's handwriting. To do this, it is useful to use a notebook in a box so that the child writes words, placing letters in separate cells. Make sure that the letters completely fill the space of the cells.

And a few more practice tips:

• The environment should be calm, nothing should distract the child
• Choose tasks according to the age and abilities of the child
• In case of difficulty, help the child, but do not complete the tasks yourself
• Do not teach your child foreign words if he is not yet psychologically ready for this.
• In everyday communication, speak as correctly and clearly as possible.
• Do not repeat after the child the words and phrases that he pronounces incorrectly
• Don't Forget to Choose Your Writing Tools Carefully
• Provide psychological support to the child, because often children with dysgraphia feel "not like everyone else"
• Never scold a child for mistakes
• Encourage and praise your child for any, even the most insignificant successes.

Remember that a competent approach to education, care and attention to the child, as well as the utmost attention to the process of his development will help you recognize deviations in time and take measures to correct and eliminate them. And we wish you and your children success in learning and mastering new skills!

Manifested in persistent, repetitive errors due to the lack of formation of higher mental functions involved in the writing process.

Dysgraphia is a significant percentage of other speech disorders found in students of secondary schools. It is a serious obstacle in the acquisition of literacy by students at the initial stages of education, and at later stages in mastering the grammar of their native language.

Various terms are used in modern literature to refer to specific writing disorders. Partial impairment of writing is called dysgraphia, complete inability to write is called agraphia.

In a number of countries (for example, in the USA), reading and writing disorders are defined by the same term "dyslexia". In other countries, specific writing disorders are defined by the term "dysorphography" (for example, in France).

In domestic literature, the terms "dysgraphia" and "dysorphography" are opposed, i.e. are delimited.

For the differential diagnosis of these disorders, it is necessary to clarify the criteria on the basis of which errors in dysgraphia and dysorphography are distinguished. Such a main criterion is the principle of spelling, which is mainly violated. It is known that the following basic principles are distinguished in Russian orthography:

Phonetic (phonemic),

Morphological,

Traditional.

The phonetic (phonemic) principle of spelling is based on the sound (phonemic) analysis of speech.

Words are written as they are heard and pronounced (house, grass, ditch). The writer analyzes the sound composition of the word and designates sounds with certain letters. Thus, for the implementation of the phonemic principle of writing, the formation of phoneme differentiation and phonemic analysis is necessary.

The morphological principle is that the morphemes of words (root, prefix, suffix, ending) with the same meaning have the same spelling, although their pronunciation in a strong and weak position may be different (house - do (a) mA, table - one hundred ( a) ly). The use of the morphological principle presupposes the ability to determine the meaningful morphemes of a word, determine the morphological structure of a word, identify morphemes with the same meaning, the pronunciation of which may differ in different phonetic conditions. The level of development of morphological analysis is closely related to the development of the vocabulary and grammatical structure of speech.

And, finally, the traditional principle presupposes such a spelling of the word that has developed in the history of the development of writing and cannot be explained by the phonetic or morphological principle of spelling.

Taking into account the principles of orthography, it can be concluded that dysgraphia is mainly associated with a violation of the implementation of the phonetic principle, and with dysorphography, the use of morphological and traditional spelling principles is violated.

Symptoms

In accordance with the definition of the term "dysgraphia", the following features of errors in dysgraphia can be distinguished:

1. As in dyslexia, errors in dysgraphia are persistent and specific, which makes it possible to distinguish these errors from errors of “growth”, “physiological” (according to B.G. Ananiev) errors that naturally occur in children when mastering writing. At the same time, it should be noted that errors in dysgraphia are similar in appearance to the so-called physiological errors. However, in dysgraphia, these errors are more numerous, repetitive and persist for a long time.

2. Dysgraphic errors are associated with the lack of formation of higher mental functions involved in the process of writing - differentiation of phonemes by ear and pronunciation, analysis of sentences into words, syllabic and phonemic analysis and synthesis, lexico-grammatical structure of speech, optical-spatial functions.

Violation of elementary functions (analyzer) can also lead to writing disorders. But these writing disorders are not considered as dysgraphia.

Violation of writing in children (for example, with mental retardation) may be associated with pedagogical neglect, with impaired attention, control, which disorganize the entire writing process as a complex speech activity. However, in this case, errors, if they are not associated with the unformedness of higher mental functions, are not specific, but variable in nature and therefore are not dysgraphic.

3. Mistakes in dysgraphia are characterized by a violation of the phonetic principle of writing, i.e. errors are observed in a strong phonetic position (paddle - instead of a shovel, dm - house), in contrast to spelling errors, which are observed only in a weak phonetic position (water - water, lady - at home).

4. Errors are characterized as dysgraphic in the case when they are observed in children of school age.

In preschool children, writing is accompanied by numerous errors, similar in nature and manifestation to dysgraphic ones. However, in preschool children, many of the mental functions that ensure the process of writing are still insufficiently formed. Therefore, these errors are natural, “physiological”.

The following groups of errors in dysgraphia are distinguished:

Distorted spelling of letters (for example, e - s, s - e)

Handwriting substitutions:

A) graphically similar (eg, c - d, l - m, c - w)

B) denoting phonetically similar sounds (eg, d - t, b - n, d - k)

3. Distortion of the sound-letter structure of the word: permutations, additions, perseverations, contamination of letters, syllables (for example, spring - spring, camp - country, coolbock - ball).

4. Distortion of the structure of the sentence: random spelling of the word, continuous spelling of words, contamination of words (for example, rooks fly from warm countries).

5. Agrammatisms in writing (for example, a lot of pencils, no keys, on branches).

Types of dysgraphia

Based on modern ideas about the essence of dysgraphia, the most significant criterion for classifying dysgraphia is the lack of formation of certain operations of the writing process. Based on this criterion, the following types of dysgraphia can be distinguished:

This form of dysgraphia was identified by M.E. Khvattsev. In the classification of M.E. Khvattsev, it was designated as dysgraphia on the basis of speech disorders, or "tongue-tiedness in writing."

The mechanism of this type of dysgraphia is the incorrect pronunciation of speech sounds, which is reflected in the letter: the child writes the words as he pronounces them.

It is known that at the initial stages of mastering writing, a child

Often pronounces the words he writes down. Speaking can be loud, whispered, or internal. In the process of pronunciation, the sound structure of the word, the nature of sounds is specified.

A child with a violation of sound pronunciation fixes it in writing.

According to R.E. Levina, G.A. Kashe and others, pronunciation deficiencies are reflected in writing only when they are accompanied by a violation of auditory differentiation, unformed phonemic representations.

Articulatory-acoustic dysgraphia manifests itself in mixtures, substitutions, omissions of letters, which correspond to mixtures, substitutions, and the absence of sounds in oral speech. This type of dysgraphia is predominantly observed in children with polymorphic impairment of sound pronunciation, especially with dysarthria, rhinolalia, sensory and sensorimotor dyslalia.

In a number of cases, substitutions of letters in writing persist in children even after the substitutions of sounds in oral speech have been eliminated. The reason for this is the lack of formation of kinesthetic images of sounds; during internal pronunciation, there is no reliance on the correct articulation of sounds.

It should be noted that a violation of sound pronunciation is not always reflected in writing, especially in cases where the auditory differentiation of sounds is well formed, and the replacement of sounds in oral speech is due to insufficient articulatory motility.

Dysgraphia based on impaired phonemic recognition

(differentiation of phonemes)

According to traditional terminology - acoustic dysgraphia.

This type of dysgraphia is manifested in the replacement of letters denoting phonetically close sounds, in violation of the designation of the softness of consonants in writing. More often, letters are mixed in writing, denoting whistling and hissing, voiced and deaf, affricates and the components that make up their composition (h - t, ch-sh, ts-t, ts-s, s-sh, s-zh, b- p, d-t, g-k, etc.), as well as vowels o-y, e-i.

Most often, the mechanism of this type of dysgraphia is associated with the inaccuracy of auditory differentiation of sounds, while the pronunciation of sounds is normal (a finer auditory differentiation is needed than for oral speech).

In other cases, children with this form of dysgraphia have an inaccuracy in the kinesthetic images of sounds, which prevents the correct choice of phoneme and its correlation with the letter.

Dysgraphia due to violation of language analysis and synthesis

The mechanism of this type of dysgraphia is a violation of the following forms of language analysis and synthesis:

Analysis of sentences into words, syllabic and phonemic analysis and synthesis.

The unformedness of the analysis of sentences into words is found in the continuous spelling of words, especially prepositions;

In separate spelling of words; especially prefixes and roots.

Pr-r: Summer pareke and dut parhodi.

The most common mistakes in this type of dysgraphia is the distortion of the sound-letter structure of the word, due to the underdevelopment of phonemic analysis, which is the most complex form of sound analysis.

The most common mistakes:

Omissions of consonants during their confluence (doji-rains, decks-days)

Vowel omissions

Permutations of letters (doll-doll, packets-droplets)

Adding letters (spring-spring)

Omissions, additions, permutations of syllables (bicycle-bicycle).

Agrammatic dysgraphia

It manifests itself in writing and is determined by the lack of formation of the lexical and grammatical structure of speech.

Agrammatisms in writing differ at the level of words, phrases, sentences and text. Most often, morphological and morphosyntactic agrammatisms, violations of control coordination are found in children with dysgraphia.

N-r: Behind the house (behind the house) is a barn.

It was a hot day.

Optical dysgraphia

This type of dysgraphia is due to the lack of formation of visual-spatial functions: visual gnosis, visual mnesis, visual analysis and synthesis, spatial representations. With optical dysgraphia, the following types of writing disorders are observed:

A) distorted reproduction of letters in a letter (incorrect reproduction of the spatial relationship of letter elements, mirror spelling of letters, underwriting of elements, extra elements);

B) replacement and mixing of graphically similar letters.

As with dyslexia, most often either letters are mixed that differ in one element (P-T, L-M, I-Sh), or letters consisting of the same or similar elements, but differently located in space (V-D, E- FROM).

One of the manifestations of optical dysgraphia is mirror writing: mirror writing of letters, writing from left to right, which can be observed in left-handed people with organic brain damage.

Optical dysgraphia is divided into literal and verbal.

Literal dysgraphia manifests itself in the difficulty of reproducing even isolated letters.

In verbal dysgraphia, the reproduction of isolated letters is preserved. However, when writing words, there are distortions of letters, replacement and mixing of graphically similar letters, contextual influences of neighboring letters on the reproduction of the visual image of a letter.

Conclusion

A speech therapist is not an understudy of a teacher and not a tutor, performing his main job of correcting children's speech defects, he must create a platform for the successful assimilation and correct application of grammatical rules by students, i.e. on the one hand, to bring students to an understanding of grammatical rules, and on the other hand, to consolidate the educational material given by the teacher, associated with the correctional process.

The main task is to educate children's linguistic instinct.

The relationship between the correctional and teaching processes contributes to the successful assimilation by students of the material on their native language as a whole.

Dysgraphia - how to help a child?

Children with dysgraphia can fully master writing, provided they continue to study hard. For some, months are enough; for others, it takes years. Letter vision and speech hearing are exercised.

It is imperative to contact a speech therapist: a speech therapist uses all kinds of games, works out the differences in pronunciation from hard to soft. You also need to contact a psychoneurologist who will advise medications that improve metabolism and memory. Dysgraphia needs to be defeated, but only through the common efforts of parents, a speech therapist, and a psychoneurologist.

Parents can help the child overcome dysgraphia if they conduct classes with him according to the following methodology: for 5 minutes the child will cross out these letters. You can start with vowels, then move on to consonants. You can underline, strikethrough, circle letters.

You can also practice with paired consonants if the child has trouble distinguishing them. As classes progress, the quality of writing improves. The purpose of the subsequent task is to allow the child to personally check his mistakes. To do this, give him an eraser and a pencil. Dictate a not very large text of 1000 characters. Errors do not need to be corrected in the text. In the margins should be marked with a blue pen (do not use red). Give the text to correct the child. He has the ability to erase mistakes and write correctly. The child himself seeks out and corrects mistakes, it is not written in the notebook, the notebook is in excellent condition. When a red pen is used, it creates a negative effect - the child begins to worry and make even more mistakes.

It is also necessary to fulfill the following conditions: let the child feel interest and success, triples and deuces discourage his desire to master writing. Do not control the child on the speed of reading. When he can only read 30 words per minute, and the rest 200, do not scold him for this, otherwise he will worry and stutter, and may not read the text at all. Traditionally, the following check is carried out at school: the child is asked to go to the blackboard, an hourglass is set, the teacher looks at the child and notes the time, leads along the line with a pencil, and I measure the reading speed. And if the test is conducted by a teacher, then the child begins to worry even more. In children with dysgraphia, neurosis can form against the background of such exams.

For children with dysgraphia, it is not the quantity that matters, but the quality. You must first develop oral speech, and then writing. The main thing is not to get angry with your parents, not to get excited, not to get too excited. Conviction in success, your endurance, harmonious state - the key to excellent results. It is difficult to overcome dysgraphia in children, it is necessary to coordinate the work of the child, his parents, a psychoneurologist, a speech therapist, only common work and patience, the child’s desire to master writing will solve the problem with illiteracy of written speech.

There are different types of dysgraphia and all of them are overcome in different ways, which is associated with their different causation. But at the same time, there are a number of such fundamentally important provisions, the consideration of which is necessary to successfully overcome any type of dysgraphia. We consider it necessary to draw the reader's attention to two such provisions.

Firstly, work on overcoming dysgraphia of any kind should never begin directly with exercises in writing, with attempts to eliminate errors in it - this will not give the desired result. First, it is necessary to carry out to the norm those operations that prepare the process of writing and without the proper level of formation of which writing, in principle, cannot proceed normally. So, for example, if a child with acoustic dysgraphia does not distinguish some sounds by ear and, therefore, allows appropriate letter substitutions in writing, then it is useless to exercise him in writing without first teaching him to distinguish sounds. It's the same with all other types of dysgraphia. What is the point of conducting endless dictations with a child who does not know how to analyze the speech flow or is not able to distinguish between letters similar in style? These will be only exercises in incorrect writing, and nothing more.

Secondly, in the process of leveling the "falling links" one should go "bypassing" and rely as much as possible on preserved functions. For example, if a child does not distinguish between the sounds С and Ш by ear, then at first you can draw his attention to the different position of the lips and tongue when pronouncing these sounds, that is, rely on vision and kinesthetic sense (sense of the position of the articulatory organs). When letters are not distinguished by their appearance (immaturity of visual analysis and synthesis), they often resort to writing letters in the air with the vision turned off, i.e. to support on a motor analyzer, etc. These techniques are well known to speech therapists and are very widely used by them, which is also useful for teachers and parents to keep in mind.

It is important to take into account one more circumstance. Sometimes in children who make dysgraphic errors, it is not possible to identify violations of any specific writing operations (not distinguishing sounds, not recognizing letters, difficulties in analyzing the speech flow, etc.). For this reason, it may seem that there is no ground for dysgraphia here. Such cases have their own explanation. Writing is a complex speech activity that includes a number of operations at various levels that must be carried out simultaneously. So, in the process of writing down words, the child should be able to distinguish all the sounds that make them up, correlate these sounds with certain letters, while choosing the appropriate alphabetic signs and translating the visual images of the letters into motor ones, and also determine the sequence of sounds in the word, not to mention the need to observe graphic norms and at least the most elementary grammatical rules. It is difficult for a child to coordinate all these operations, it is difficult to distribute his attention between them, performing all of them synchronously and at the same time switching from one operation to another in a timely manner. Therefore, it is not surprising that a child who successfully copes with the implementation of each individual operation cannot perform all of them at the same time, which leads to dysgraphic errors. However, this impossibility of combining all the necessary writing operations is still more characteristic of children with insufficient fluency in each of them separately.

Causes of dysgraphia.

Dysgraphia is not considered as an independent disease, it is more often considered as a symptom of various encephalopic neurological dysfunctions and disorders. Often, dysgraphia is assessed as the effect of pathologies in the analytical and synthetic functioning of the motor, auditory, speech, and visual analyzers. A child who suffers from dysgraphia does not fully have the ability to synthesize and analyze various information.

Based on this, dysgraphia can be classified into motor, acoustic and optical.

There is also another point of view, which recognizes that dysgraphia is a language disorder, which lends itself to special psychological and pedagogical methods of elimination.

Dysgraphia - what does it look like in practice?

With dysgraphia, children do not use capital letters, and their dictations include a lot of errors. When writing, children use short phrases with a small vocabulary set. Children are afraid that they will be scolded, as a result of this they refuse to go to Russian language lessons or complete assignments. Children with dysgraphia feel that everyone is laughing at them, that they are inferior, and may often be in a state of depression.

A child with dysgraphia confuses the letters: Z, E; R and b. Such children write dictations unevenly, slowly, if they are upset by something, then their handwriting is completely impossible to distinguish. It is also necessary to understand that the errors that were made due to ignorance of the rules of grammar are not dysgraphia.

If a child has a hearing impairment, it is difficult for him to learn to write and read. It is difficult for him to master written speech, since he is unable to determine what sound this or that letter means. The rapid flow of speech completely disorients the baby. Teaching literacy to a child who has speech hearing impairments is not an easy pedagogical task.

To study writing, a child must have a satisfactory intellectual level, speech hearing and remember how letters are written. The unequal formation of the cerebral hemispheres can also be a prerequisite for dysgraphia. The center of speech is located in the left hemisphere. The right hemisphere gives the answer for the correct understanding of images, symbols. A child with dysraphia has great difficulty studying writing, but draws well. The inability to acquire language does not prevent these children from "talking" through drawing.

Parents should pay attention to the mirror bias of the reflection of the letters. Letters can be flipped to the other side. A special role is played by the factor of heredity, when the child is inherited by the underdevelopment of brain structures.

The basis of dysgraphia can also be bilingualism in the family. Many families leave their homeland, move, and learn another language.

How to detect dysgraphia?

Dysgraphia is determined by the presence of “peculiar errors”: a child can skip syllables, letters, words, rearrange them, shift and change letters, and does not recognize letters that are similar in outline. Violation of word agreement, construction of a sentence, links in a sentence.

Dysgraphia classification

The classification of dysgraphia is carried out on the basis of various criteria:

Taking into account disturbed analyzers, mental functions, unformed

writing operations.

OA Tokareva distinguishes 3 types of dysgraphia: acoustic, optical, motor.

With acoustic dysgraphia, there is a lack of differentiation of the auditory

Perceptions, insufficient development of sound analysis and synthesis. Frequent

There are mixtures and omissions, replacements of letters denoting sounds similar in

Articulation and sound, as well as the reflection of incorrect sound pronunciation on

Optical dysgraphia is due to the instability of visual impressions and

Submissions. Individual letters are not recognized, do not correlate with certain

Sounds. Letters are perceived differently at different times. Due to

Inaccuracies of visual perception, they are mixed in writing. Most often

Mixings of the following handwritten letters are observed:

In severe cases of optical dysgraphia, writing words is impossible. Child writes

Only single letters. In some cases, especially in left-handers, there is

Mirror writing, when words, letters, elements of letters are written from right to left.

Motor dysgraphia. It is characterized by difficulty in moving the hand during

Letters, violation of the connection of motor images of sounds and words with visual images.

Modern psychological and psycholinguistic study of the writing process

It indicates that it is a complex form of speech activity,

Including a large number of operations of various levels: semantic,

Linguistic, sensorimotor. In this regard, the allocation of types of dysgraphia based on

Analyzer level violations are currently not enough

Justified.

The types of dysgraphia identified by M. E. Khvattsev also do not satisfy today's

Representation of violations of the letter. Consider them

1. Dysgraphia on the basis of acoustic agnosia and defects in phonemic hearing.

In this form, the write-off is preserved.

The physiological mechanism of the defect is the violation of associative links

Between sight and hearing, there are omissions, permutations, substitutions of letters, and

Also merging two words into one, skipping words, etc.

The basis of this type is the non-differentiation of auditory perception.

The sound composition of the word, the insufficiency of phonemic analysis.

Violation of the differentiation of sounds and with a violation of phonemic analysis and

Synthesis.

2. Dysgraphia due to speech disorders (“graphic

tongue-tiedness"). According to M.E. Khvattsev, it arises on the basis of an incorrect

Sound pronunciation. Replacing some sounds with others, the absence of sounds in

Pronunciation causes the corresponding substitutions and omissions of sounds in writing. M. E.

Khvattsev also singles out a special form due to the "experienced" tongue-tied tongue (when

The sound pronunciation disorder disappeared before the start of literacy training or after the start

mastery of writing). The more severe the violation of pronunciation, the

Rougher and more varied errors of writing. The allocation of this type of dysgraphia is recognized

Justified at present.

3. Dysgraphia on the basis of a violation of the pronunciation rhythm. M. E. Khvattsev

He believes that as a result of a disorder in the pronunciation rhythm in writing

There are gaps in vowels, syllables, endings. Errors may be due

Either underdevelopment of phonemic analysis and synthesis, or distortions

The sound-syllabic structure of the word.

4. Optical dysgraphia. Caused by a disorder or deficiency

Optical speech systems in the brain. The formation of the visual

An image of a letter, a word. With literal dysgraphia, a child's visual

The image of the letter, there are distortions and replacements of isolated letters. With verbal

Dysgraphia writing isolated letters is safe, but with difficulty

A visual image of the word is formed, the child writes words with gross errors.

With optical dysgraphia, the child does not distinguish between similar graphically handwritten

Letters: p - k, p. - i, s - o, i - w, l - m.

5. Dysgraphia in motor and sensory aphasia manifests itself in substitutions,

Distortions in the structure of words, sentences and are caused by the decay of oral speech

Due to organic brain damage.

The most reasonable is the classification of dysgraphia, which is based on

The lack of formation of certain operations of the writing process (developed

Employees of the Department of Speech Therapy of the Leningrad State Pedagogical Institute named after. A. I. Herzen). The following

It can be replenished due to redundancy, due to fixed in speech experience

Motor stereotypes, kinesthetic images. In the process of writing to

The correct distinction and choice of a phoneme requires a fine analysis of all

Acoustic signs of sound that are semantic-distinctive.

On the other hand, in the process of writing, the differentiation of sounds, the choice of phonemes

Carried out on the basis of trace activity, auditory images,

Submission. Due to the fuzziness of auditory ideas about phonetically

In close sounds, the choice of a particular phoneme is difficult, which results in

Writing disorders in mentally retarded children associate letter substitutions with the fact that

With phonemic recognition, children rely on articulatory signs of sounds and

Do not use auditory controls.

In contrast to these studies, R. Becker and A. Kossovsky, the main

The mechanism for replacing letters denoting phonetically close sounds is considered

Difficulties of kinesthetic analysis. Their research shows that children with

Dysgraphia underutilizes kinesthetic sensations (speaking)

While writing. They are not helped much by pronunciation, as during auditory

Dictation and independent writing. Speech exception (method

L.K. Nazarova) does not affect the number of errors, i.e. does not lead to them

Increase. At the same time, the exclusion of speaking while writing in children

Without dysgraphia leads to an increase in errors in writing by 8-9 times.

Underdevelopment, with unformed ideas about the phoneme, with a violation

Phoneme selection operations (R. E. Levina, L. F. Spirova).

Correct writing requires a sufficient level of functioning of all

Operations of the process of distinguishing and choosing phonemes. If any link is broken

(auditory, kinesthetic analysis, phoneme selection operations, auditory and

kinesthetic control) hampers the whole process of phonemic

Recognition, which is manifested in the replacement of letters in a letter. Therefore, taking into account

Impaired phonemic recognition operations can be divided into the following subspecies

This form of dysgraphia: acoustic, kinesthetic, phonemic.

3. Dysgraphia on the basis of a violation of language analysis and synthesis. At the heart of it

There is a violation of various forms of linguistic analysis and synthesis: the division of sentences

On words, syllabic and phonemic analysis and synthesis. Language underdevelopment

Analysis and synthesis is manifested in writing in distortions of the structure of the word and

Offers. The most complex form of language analysis is phonemic

Analysis. As a result, especially common in this type of dysgraphia

There will be distortions of the sound-letter structure of the word.

The following errors are most typical: omissions of consonants during their confluence

(dictation - "dikat", school - "cola"); vowel gaps (dog

- “sbaka”, at home - “dma”); permutations of letters (trail - "prota",

Window - "kono"); adding letters (drag - "drag"); passes,

Additions, permutation of syllables (room - "cat", glass -

For the correct mastery of the writing process, it is necessary that the phonemic

The analysis was formed in the child not only in the external, speech, but also in

Internal plan, according to the presentation.

Violation of the division of sentences into words in this type of dysgraphia is manifested in

Continuous spelling of words, especially prepositions, with other words (it's raining

- “I’m gone”, in the house - “in the house”); separate spelling of the word (white

A birch grows by the window - “belabe will grow an eye”); separate spelling

Prefixes and the root of the word (stepped - “stepped on”).

Writing disorders due to unformed phonemic analysis and

Syntheses are widely represented in the works of R. E. Levina, N. A. Nikashina, D. I.

Orlova, G. V. Chirkina.

A violation of the letter is such a deviation from the generally accepted norms of these processes, which differs by itself not passing, i.e. persistent character, requiring special assistance and affecting the personality and social adaptation of the child.

The pathology of writing is denoted by the following terms: agraphia (from the Greek a - a particle meaning negation, grapho - I write) - a complete inability to assimilate writing and dysgraphia (from the Greek dis - a prefix meaning disorder, grapho - I write) - specific (partial) writing violation.

Lalaeva R.I. and Benediktova L.V. define dysgraphia as a partial violation of the writing process, manifested in persistent, repetitive errors due to the lack of formation of higher mental functions involved in the writing process.

I.N. Sadovnikova defines dysgraphia as a partial writing disorder (in younger students - difficulties in mastering written speech), the main symptom of which is the presence of persistent specific errors. The occurrence of such errors among students of a general education school is not associated with a decrease in intellectual development, or with severe hearing and vision impairments, or with the irregularity of schooling.

A.N. Kornev calls dysgraphia a persistent inability to master the skills of writing according to the rules of graphics (that is, guided by the phonetic principle of writing) despite a sufficient level of intellectual and speech development and the absence of gross visual and hearing impairments.

According to Khvattsev M.E. dysgraphia (dis - disorder; grapho - I write) are various disorders of written speech that arise on the basis of pathological conditions of oral speech, the whole organism or the psyche of the writer.

So, let's dwell on the fact that dysgraphia is a partial violation of the writing process, manifested in persistent, repetitive errors due to the lack of formation of higher mental functions involved in the writing process. It manifests itself in the instability of the optical-spatial image of the letter, in the confusion or omission of letters, in the distortion of the sound-syllabic composition of the word and the structure of sentences.

Dysgraphic errors are persistent and specific, they are not associated with the knowledge and application of spelling rules. In addition, errors can be characterized as dysgraphic only when they are observed in children of school age, since in preschool children many mental functions that provide the writing process are not yet sufficiently formed.

The causes of dysgraphia can be organic and functional, biological and social.

Writing disorders can be caused by organic damage to the cortical areas of the brain involved in the process of reading and writing, delayed maturation of these brain systems, and disruption of their functioning. Writing disorders can be associated with long-term somatic diseases of children in the early period of their development, as well as with adverse external factors (incorrect speech of others, bilingualism, insufficient attention to the development of a child’s speech in the family, insufficient speech contacts, unfavorable family environment, pedagogical neglect, incorrect literacy, hyper-custody).

Sadovnikova I.N. emphasizes that writing disorders may be due to a delay in the formation of certain functional systems that are important for the development of written speech, due to hazards that acted in different periods of the child's development. In addition, dyslexia and dysgraphia occur with organic speech disorders.

Some researchers note a hereditary predisposition to dyslexia (B. Khapyren, M. Rudinesko, etc.), when the qualitative immaturity of individual brain structures involved in the organization of written speech is transmitted.

Studies of recent decades prove that often one of the causes of the considered violations of reading and writing are the difficulties in the formation of the process of lateralization (functional asymmetry in the activity of paired sensorimotor organs), as well as a delay in the child's awareness of the body scheme. Dysgraphia may be the result of a violation of the perception of space and time, as well as the analysis and reproduction of spatial and temporal sequences.

In the domestic literature, the concept of R.E. Levina, who interprets reading and writing disorders as a manifestation of a systemic speech disorder, as a reflection of the underdevelopment of oral speech in all its links.

1) the causes that affect the child's body as a whole, on individual mental processes that weaken them, slowing down the pace of their development. Such causes affect the parts of the brain, analyzer systems, physiologically weakening the development of a particular system. 2) the reasons that are considered in the linguistic aspect and they are directly related to the underdevelopment of one of the components of the functional basis of written speech.

The causes of writing disorders in children were analyzed in most detail by A.N. Root. In turn, in the etiology of writing disorders, the author distinguishes three groups of phenomena:

First group- these are constitutional prerequisites: individual features of the formation of functional specialization of the cerebral hemispheres, the presence of writing disorders in parents, mental illness in relatives.

Second group- these are encephalopathic disorders caused by harmful effects during periods of natal development. Damage at the early stages of ontogenesis often causes abnormalities in the development of subcortical structures. Later exposure to pathological factors (birth and postnatal development) affects the higher cortical regions of the brain to a greater extent. The impact of harmful factors leads to deviations in the development of brain systems, to uneven development of individual brain functions (minimal brain dysfunctions).

Third group The reasons for the occurrence of dysgraphia are unfavorable social and environmental factors. These factors include:

· not correlated with the actual maturity of the child, the time of the beginning of literacy;

· the volume and level of literacy requirements not correlated with the child's capabilities;

methods and pace of learning that do not correspond to the individual characteristics of the child.

Thus, according to A.N. Kornev, difficulties in mastering written language arise mainly as a result of a combination of three groups of phenomena: 1. biological insufficiency of the brain systems; 2. based on functional insufficiency; 3. environmental conditions that place increased demands on retarded or immature mental functions.

Based on the knowledge about the structural components of the functional basis of written speech, we can conclude that all symptoms of writing disorders can be due to two factors ( Annex 2):

1) unformed oral speech: phonetic-phonemic and lexical-grammatical processes.

2) unformed visual and motor processes

Let's consider each factor in more detail.

Unformed phonetic-phonemic processes

The following groups of specific errors are distinguished:

Errors at the letter and syllable level;

Errors at the level of words and sentences (phrases).

Errors at the letter and syllable level - these are substitutions, omissions, insertions, permutations of letters and syllables.

Substitutions may be associated with the lack of formation of the acoustic component of speech and articulation.

Substitutions of letters and syllables on an acoustic basis appear when the writer singles out a certain sound in the composition of the word, but for its designation he chooses a letter that does not correspond to it. Such errors are based on the difficulties of differentiating phonemes that have an acoustic-articulatory similarity. According to the acoustic-articulatory similarity, the following phonemes are usually mixed: labialized vowels; paired voiced and deaf consonants; sonorous; whistling and hissing. Affricates mix both among themselves and with any of their components.

Substitutions of letters and syllables according to the articulation feature are due to the unformed movements of the organs of articulation. As a rule, such substitutions are due to the initial unformed sounds.

The lack of formation of the action of sound analysis and synthesis manifests itself in writing in the form of the following types of specific errors: omission, rearrangement, insertion of letters and syllables. Sound analysis is an action to establish the sequence and number of sounds in a word. Pass indicates that the student does not isolate all of its sound components in the composition of the word, for example: "snks" - sleds; The omission of several letters in a word is the result of a grosser violation of sound analysis, leading to a distortion and simplification of the structure of the word: health - "dorve";

Permutations letters and syllables are the result of difficulties in analyzing the sequence of sounds in a word. In this case, the syllabic structure of words can be preserved without distortion, for example: closet - "chunal";

inserts vowels are usually observed with a confluence of consonants (especially when one of them is explosive): “shekola”, “girl. These insertions can be explained by an overtone that inevitably appears when the word is spoken slowly during writing and resembles a reduced vowel.

Errors at the word and sentence level are associated with the lack of formation of language analysis and synthesis at the word or sentence level. The child cannot catch and isolate stable speech units and their elements in the speech flow. This leads to the continuous writing of adjacent words or to the separate writing of parts of the word. At the initial stage of learning, children hardly learn the articulation of the text into speech units, which is reflected in the lack of designation of sentence boundaries: capital letters and dots. Insertions, omissions and permutation of words and sentences are also noted.

Lack of formation of lexical and grammatical processes

In this group there will be errors that occur in the group of errors due to phonetic-phonemic underdevelopment. In addition, in this group there are errors that are associated with lexical and grammatical underdevelopment:

Morphemic agrammatism - children do not realize the generalized meaning of morphemes, often mistakenly use a prefix or suffix. Mistakes are clearly detected in the operation of word formation (ice - "ice"; honey - "medic", "hand" - "hands").

Agrammatisms - a violation of the connection of words: coordination and control. Changing words according to the categories of number, gender, case, time forms a complex system of codes that allows you to streamline the phenomena designated, highlight the features and attribute them to certain categories. The insufficient level of language generalizations sometimes does not allow schoolchildren to catch categorical differences in parts of speech. Significant difficulties are associated with the use of prepositions: they can be omitted, replaced, less often doubled. Children with dysgraphia also find it difficult to choose the appropriate form of the verb.

Certain difficulties are presented by operating with homogeneous members of the sentence.

Unformed visual and motor processes

Such errors are noted as: substitutions for the same form of the letter (p-n, p-i, s-o, i-sh, y-d, i-y, b-d, e-s, w-g, c and t .p.), replacements by spatial arrangement (Z - E, c-e), replacements by the number of elements (i-w, t - n). The lack of formation of motor processes is manifested in the fact that the child cannot switch from one movement to another.

Among the listed errors, there are those that are similar in their manifestations. The most striking example of such errors is the replacement of letters. In writing, it is impossible to distinguish an error associated with the unformed phonemic processes from an error associated with the unformed articulatory processes in a child. So, the reason for writing “shanka” instead of “sledge”, “ezik” instead of “hedgehog”, “zalya” instead of “dawn” may be that the child does not distinguish these sounds by ear, but pronounces them quite correctly, and then, that the child replaces these sounds during pronunciation, but differentiates them by ear. With such errors, only after examining the sound and phonemic side of speech, it is possible to establish what type of error in writing is characteristic of the child. Substitutions due to the unformed visual and motor processes are usually easy to distinguish from other errors, but there are difficult cases where it is difficult to do so. For example, if a child writes not “porridge”, but “porridge”, the question arises whether he replaces these letters because he does not distinguish them in form, or because the child’s motor processes are not sufficiently formed (adds extra elements) , or the child replaces the letters due to the above errors (acoustic, articulatory). To differentiate such errors, you should check whether the child distinguishes letters by their shape, how the child writes off words. If no errors were found with this type of checking, then we are talking about errors that are due to the unformed acoustic and articulatory processes that are described above.

Also, when analyzing written work, it should be remembered that children often make spelling mistakes that can easily be mistaken for dysgraphic ones.

Errors due to the lack of formation of analysis and synthesis and errors due to the underdevelopment of lexical and grammatical categories do not cause difficulties in distinguishing them.

Thus, we found out that dysgraphia is a specific (partial) violation of the letter. Errors in dysgraphia are persistent and can only occur in children not younger than school age. The causes of dysgraphia are varied, they can be organic and functional, biological and social. We indicated the symptoms of errors and identified errors that are similar in their manifestation.

In the primary grades of a general education school, there are children whose process of mastering writing and reading is impaired. A partial disorder in the processes of reading and writing is denoted by the terms dyslexia and dysgraphia. Their main symptom is the presence of persistent specific errors, the occurrence of which among students of a general education school is not associated with a decrease in intellectual development, or with severe hearing and vision impairments, or with the irregularity of schooling. Dyslexia and dysgraphia usually occur together. A complete inability to master writing and reading is called agraphia and alexia, respectively. The causes of dysgraphia and dyslexia are associated with a violation of the interaction of various analyzer systems of the cerebral cortex.

Dysgraphia manifests itself in persistent and repetitive writing errors. These errors are usually grouped according to the following principles: shifts and replacements of letters; distortion of the sound-syllabic structure of the word; violations of the fusion of writing individual words in a sentence - breaking a word into parts, fused spelling of words in a sentence; agrammatism; mixing letters by optical similarity.

Violation of writing in the form of dysgraphia is closely related to the insufficient readiness of mental processes that are formed during the development of oral speech. It is during the period of mastering oral speech that generalized concepts of the sound and morphological composition of the word are created on a purely practical level, which subsequently, when the child moves to literacy and spelling, contributes to their conscious assimilation. To master literacy and the phonetic and morphological principles inherent in Russian writing, a child must be able to separate the sound side of a word from the semantic one, analyze the sound composition of a word clearly pronounced in all its parts. For fluent oral speech, it is often sufficient to clearly pronounce only those sounds that are necessary for understanding the word (semantic sounds). Those sounds that are less related to the listener's understanding of the word are pronounced less carefully and definitely in natural speech. Too clear articulation of all the sound elements of the word contradicts the orthoepic requirements of the language. At the same time, in the process of normal speech ontogenesis, a child acquires a fairly accurate idea of ​​the sound composition of a word, including its unclearly pronounced elements. This turns out to be possible due to linguistic generalizations that develop with the constant comparison of words with each other. In the process of correlating sound elements that reflect the difference between the lexical and grammatical meanings of a word, the child's cognitive processes are being prepared for understanding the relationship between orthoepy and spelling. Successful mastery of writing is preceded not only by the accumulation of a sufficient vocabulary, but also by the presence in speech experience of a conscious analysis of words according to adequate signs of correlating orthoepy and spelling. So, the child must be aware that the words fly in, fly in have the same root. The normal formation of oral speech is accompanied by the accumulated experience of cognitive work both in the field of elementary sound generalizations and in the field of morphological analysis.

Children with speech underdevelopment do not master this level of linguistic generalization and, accordingly, are not ready to master such a complex analytical and synthetic activity as writing.

Currently, it is customary to distinguish several types of dysgraphia.

Articulatory-acoustic dysgraphia. With this form of dysgraphia, children experience various distortions of sound pronunciation (phonetic disorders) and insufficiency of phonemic perception of speech sounds that differ in subtle acoustic-articulatory features and (phonetic-phonemic disorders). Articulatory-acoustic dysgraphia manifests itself mainly in the substitutions of letters that correspond to the substitutions of sounds in the child's oral speech. Sometimes substitutions of letters remain in the child's letter even after they are eliminated in oral speech. According to R. E. Levina (1959), this is because children with speech pathology do not develop generalized concepts about the sound and morphological composition of the word during the period of mastering oral speech. Normally, it is the creation of these generalizations that allows primary school students to consciously move on to acquiring literacy and spelling.

Acoustic dysgraphia. In children with this form of dysgraphia, the processes of phonemic perception are not well formed. This is manifested in the substitutions and mixtures of letters, which denote sounds that differ in subtle acoustic-articulatory features. For example, substitutions and displacements of letters denoting whistling and hissing sounds; voiced and deaf; soft and hard; sounds r and l; substitutions of letters denoting vowel sounds. In addition, children may have an unformed sound analysis and synthesis, which manifests itself in writing in the form of the following specific errors: omissions, insertions, permutations, repetitions of letters or syllables. The omissions of letters indicate that the child does not isolate all of its sound components (“snks” - sledges) in the composition of the word. The permutations and repetitions of letters and syllables are an expression of the difficulties in analyzing the sequences of sounds in a word (“korvom” - a carpet, “sugar” - sugar). Insertions of vowels are more often observed with consonant clusters, which is explained by the overtone that appears when the word is spoken slowly during writing and resembles a reduced vowel (“girl”, “Alexandar”).

Dysgraphia associated with impaired language analysis and synthesis. This form of dysgraphia is due to the fact that students do not isolate stable speech units and their elements in the speech flow. This leads to the continuous spelling of adjacent words, prepositions and conjunctions with the subsequent word ("on a tree"); to the separate writing of parts of the word, more often the prefix and the root (“and dut”).

Agrammatical dysgraphia. This form of dysgraphia is more clearly traced than others due to the lack of development of the grammatical side of oral speech in children. In writing, grammatical connections between words are violated, as well as semantic connections between sentences.

Optical dysgraphia is associated with underdevelopment of spatial representations, analysis and synthesis of visual perception.

This is manifested in the replacements and distortions of letters similar in outline (d - b, t - w, and - w, p - t, x - w, l - m), incorrect arrangement of letter elements, etc. This type of dysgraphia includes the so-called "mirror writing".

A child with dysgraphia usually has difficulty developing graphic skills, resulting in uneven handwriting. The child's difficulty in choosing the right letter gives a characteristic sloppy look to the letter. It is full of corrections and corrections.

Dyslexia as a partial disorder of the process of mastering reading is manifested in numerous repeated errors in the form of substitutions, permutations, omissions of letters, etc., which is due to the unformed mental functions that ensure the process of mastering reading. Mistakes in dyslexia are persistent.

There are the following forms of dyslexia

phonemic dyslexia. It is observed in children with unformed functions of phonemic perception, analysis and synthesis. Children in the process of reading confuse letters denoting sounds that are similar in acoustic and articulatory parameters. With the underdevelopment of the functions of phonemic analysis and synthesis, letter-by-letter reading, distortion of the sound-syllabic structure of the word (inserts, omissions, permutations) are observed.

Semantic dyslexia is due to the unformed processes of evucosyllabic synthesis and the lack of differentiated ideas about syntactic relationships within a sentence. Such children master the technique of reading, but they read mechanically, without understanding the meaning of what they read.

Agrammatical dyslexia is observed in children with unformed grammatical side of oral speech. When reading sentences, grammatical errors are observed.

Mnestic dyslexia is associated with a violation of the establishment of associative links between the visual image of a letter and the auditory image of a sound, that is, children cannot remember letters and compare them with the corresponding sounds.

Optical dyslexia is caused by the same mechanisms as optical dysgraphia. When reading, letters similar in outline are mixed and interchanged by children. Sometimes "mirror reading" can be observed.

Children with dysgraphia and dyslexia need speech therapy classes that use special methods to develop writing and reading skills.

Clinical-psychological-pedagogical characteristics of children with speech disorders

Children with speech disorders usually have functional or organic abnormalities in the state of the central nervous system.

The presence of an organic brain lesion determines that these children do not tolerate heat, stuffiness, riding in transport, long swings, they often complain of headaches, nausea and dizziness. Many of them have various motor disorders: imbalance, coordination of movements, undifferentiated movements of the fingers and articulatory movements (i.e., unformed general and oral praxis).

Such children are quickly exhausted and fed up with any kind of activity (i.e., they get tired quickly). They are characterized by irritability, increased excitability. Motor disinhibition, cannot sit still, fiddle with something in their hands, dangle their legs, etc. They are emotionally unstable, the mood changes quickly. Often there are mood disorders with the manifestation of aggression, obsession, anxiety. Much less often they have lethargy and lethargy. These children tire quite quickly, and this fatigue accumulates during the day towards the evening, as well as towards the end of the week. Fatigue affects the general behavior of the child, his well-being. This can manifest itself in increased headaches, sleep disturbance, lethargy, or, conversely, increased motor activity. It is difficult for such children to maintain perseverance, efficiency and voluntary attention throughout the lesson. Their motor disinhibition can be expressed in the fact that they show motor restlessness while sitting in class, get up, walk around the classroom, run out into the corridor during the lesson. During the break, children are overly excitable, do not respond to comments, and after the break they can hardly concentrate on the lesson.

As a rule, such children have instability of attention and memory, especially speech, a low level of understanding of verbal instructions, insufficiency of the regulatory function of speech, a low level of control over their own activities, impaired cognitive activity, and low mental performance.

The mental state of these children is unstable, and therefore their performance changes dramatically. During the period of psychosomatic well-being, such children can achieve quite high results in their studies.

Children with functional deviations in the state of the central nervous system are emotionally reactive, easily give neurotic reactions and even disorders in response to a remark, a bad mark, a disrespectful attitude from the teacher and children. Their behavior may be characterized by negativism, increased excitability, aggression, or, on the contrary, increased shyness, indecision, fearfulness. All this as a whole testifies to the special state of the central nervous system of children suffering from speech disorders.

The system of special institutions for children with speech disorders

In addition to special kindergartens for children with speech disorders, there are special (speech therapy) groups in general kindergartens, as well as speech therapy centers in general kindergartens. At general education schools, there are points of correctional and pedagogical assistance, where a defectologist provides assistance to children with speech disorders and learning difficulties. In addition, there are special schools for children with severe speech disorders.

Regardless of the type of institution, speech therapy assistance received by persons with speech disorders is carried out only under the conditions of a comprehensive medical, psychological and pedagogical impact. It involves the inclusion in the process of rehabilitation work of a number of specialists (speech therapist, doctor, psychologist) according to the needs of a child or adult with speech pathology.

Since speech is a complex mental function, a deviation in its development and its violation, as a rule, are a sign of serious changes in the state of the central nervous system. This means that not only speech suffers, but all higher mental functions in general. Children with speech pathology tend to have greater or lesser learning difficulties. At the same time, the vast majority of children with speech disorders study in general education schools. Since the pronounced signs of speech disorders at school age may already be absent, teachers often associate difficulties in teaching such children with deficiencies in education, low parental control, and social neglect. However, these children require special attention from teachers.

First of all, children who have learning difficulties and, especially in mastering the process of writing and reading, should be referred to a defectologist. In addition, these children need a more favorable (facilitated) learning regimen. Such a regime is characterized not by a decrease in the level of requirements for the assimilation of program material, but by the organization of a training regime. First of all, they need special psychological support from the teacher. This is expressed in encouragement, a soft tone of remarks, encouragement, etc. The tasks that are set for the class as a whole in the educational process should be detailed for such children, instructions should be more detailed, i.e., be accessible for understanding and execution.

In cases where a child has persistent writing and reading errors, he should not be forced to repeat the same tasks over and over again. In this case, the child needs specialized speech therapy assistance using corrective methods of teaching writing and reading.

When communicating with students with learning difficulties, the teacher should pay great attention to the quality of his speech, since the quality of perception of educational material by children will depend on this. The speech of the teacher should be slow, measured, consist of short and clear sentences, emotionally expressive. And most importantly, the general background of the teacher's behavior and appeal to children (facial expressions, gestures, intonation) should be benevolent, arouse in the child a desire to cooperate.

If there are stuttering children in the class, it is recommended not to replace the oral answers of these children with written ones; oral interviews should be conducted on the spot, without calling to the board, and also without starting the survey with stuttering children. If the child has a pronounced fear of speech, it is recommended to interview the stutterer after the lesson. At the same time, the teacher's soft, benevolent attitude towards the child will help improve the quality of his speech.

Dysgraphia in children is a specific difficulty in mastering the skills of written speech, which most often accompanies the underdevelopment of oral speech in dyslalia, dysarthria, alalia, hearing loss, but can occur and manifest itself independently.

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Dysgraphia.

Dysgraphia in children is a specific difficulty in mastering the skills of written speech, which most often accompanies the underdevelopment of oral speech in dyslalia, dysarthria, alalia, hearing loss, but can occur and manifest itself independently.

Agraphia and dysgraphia are various disorders of written speech that have arisen on the basis of incorrect or incomplete development of oral speech, violations of it, or as a result of lesions of specific mechanisms of writing, or, finally, due to other psychophysical disorders of the writer (poor attention, painful haste, poor memory for visual and sound images ....).

Dysgraphia is a partial violation of the writing process, in which persistent and recurring errors are observed: distortions and replacements of letters, distortions of the sound-syllabic structure of a word, violations of the spelling of individual words in a sentence, agrammatisms in writing.

I. N. Sadovnikova believes that, in relation to younger schoolchildren, it is more correct to speak not about violations, but about the difficulties of mastering written speech. The main symptom is the presence of persistent specific errors, the occurrence of which in students is not associated either with severe hearing and vision impairments or with the irregularity of schooling.

According to G. V. Chirkina, writing disorders in children are special difficulties that are caused by systemic underdevelopment of certain aspects of the child’s speech activity, which in children who have reached school age, with normal mental abilities and hearing, manifest themselves primarily in insufficient formation of ideas about the sound and morphological composition of the word.

O. B. Inshakova, L. I. Belyakova believe that writing disorders are a fairly common defect that occurs in primary school students of a comprehensive school and, as a rule, leads to. To persistent learning difficulties. Writing disorders may be due to a delay in the formation of certain functional systems that are important for the development of written speech, due to hazards that acted at different periods of the child's development. In addition, dysgraphia occurs with speech disorders (A. R. Luria, S. S. Lyapidevskaya, M. E. Khvattsev).

In the domestic literature, the concept of R. E. Levina is widespread, interpreting writing disorders as a manifestation of a systemic speech disorder, as a reflection of the underdevelopment of oral speech in all its links.

Often one of the causes of violations of the letter. There are difficulties in the formation of the laterization process (functional asymmetry in the activity of paired sensorimotor organs). Unformed in time, as well as cross-folding lateralitis reveals that the dominant role of one of the cerebral hemispheres has not been established. This can lead to speech development disorders. In cases of delay in the process of laterization and in various forms of "conflict of dominance", cortical control over many types of activity is also difficult.

The symptomatology of dysgraphia is manifested in specific (not related to the use of spelling rules), persistent and repetitive errors in the writing process, the occurrence of which is not associated with violations of the child's intellectual or sensory development or with the irregularity of schooling: distortion and replacement of letters; distortion of the sound-syllabic structure of the word; violations of the continuity of writing individual words in a sentence; agrammatisms in writing.

The writing errors are neither constant nor identical for a particular word. Such variability of violations shows. That none of the pathogenetic factors is decisive, but each is important in conjunction with others. It is impossible to find a universal explanation applicable to all cases of writing violations.

Dysgraphia can also be accompanied by non-speech symptoms (impaired cognitive activity, memory, attention, mental disorders). In these cases, non-speech symptoms are determined together with writing disorders and are included in the structure of neuropsychic and speech disorders (with dysarthria, alalia, speech disorders with mental retardation). At the same time, dysgraphia in children with normal intelligence can cause deviations in personality formation, certain mental stratifications. In children with dysgraphia, many higher mental functions are not formed: visual analysis and synthesis, spatial representations, auditory-pronunciation differentiation of speech sounds, phonemic, syllabic analysis and synthesis, division of sentences into words, lexical-grammatical structure of speech, memory disorders, attention, emotional - volitional sphere.

Classification of dysgraphia is carried out on the basis of various criteria: taking into account disturbed analyzers, mental functions, unformed writing operations.

M. E. Khvattsev identified 5 types of dysgraphia:

1. Dysgraphia on the basis of acoustic agnosia and defects in phonemic hearing. The mechanism, which, according to M. E. Khvattsev, is a violation of the associative links between vision and hearing, there are omissions, rearrangements, substitutions of letters, omissions of words, merging of two into one.

2. Dysgraphia on the basis of speech disorders.

3. Dysgraphia on the basis of a violation of the pronunciation rhythm.

4. Optical dysgraphia.

5. Dysgraphia in motor and sensory aphasia.

According to R. I. Lalayeva, the classification of M. E. Khvattsev does not satisfy the idea of ​​writing disorders.

Tokareva O. A. identifies 3 types of dysgraphia:

1.Acoustic.

According to Tokareva O.A., it occurs with insufficient development of sound analysis and synthesis, undifferentiated auditory perception. Mixing and omissions, substitutions of letters denoting sounds that are similar in articulation and sound, as well as reflections of incorrect sound pronunciation, are frequent in writing.

2. Optical dysgraphia.

This dysgraphia, according to Tokareva O.A., is due to the instability of visual impressions and ideas. Individual letters are not recognized, do not correspond to certain sounds. Due to the inaccuracy of visual perception at different moments, the letters are perceived differently and therefore are mixed in writing:p - n, p - i, y - i, c - u, w - i, m - l, b - d, p - t.

In severe cases of optical dysgraphia, writing words is impossible. Pupils write only individual letters, a mirror letter is also possible (words, letters, elements of letters are written from right to left).

3.Motor dysgraphia.

Motor dysgraphia is characterized by difficulties in hand movement during writing, a violation of the connection of motor images of sounds and words with visual images.

According to R. I. Lalayeva, the allocation of types of dysgraphia on the basis of violations of the analyzer level is currently insufficiently substantiated, because. the process of writing is a complex form of speech activity, which includes a large number of operations at various levels: semantic, linguistic, sensorimotor.

The most reasonable is the classification developed by the staff of the Department of Speech Therapy of the Leningrad State Pedagogical Institute. A. I. Herzen (L. S. Volkova,

R. I. Lalaeva and others). The following types of dysgraphies are distinguished:

1. Articulatory-acoustic dysgraphia.

The child writes as he speaks. It is based on the reflection of incorrect pronunciation in writing, reliance on incorrect pronunciation. This dysgraphia is manifested in substitutions, omissions of letters corresponding to substitutions and omissions of sounds in oral speech. Sometimes substitutions of letters in writing remain even after they are eliminated in oral speech.

2. Dysgraphia based on phonemic recognition(differentiation of phonemes) or acoustic dysgraphia.

According to R. I. Lalayeva appears in substitutions of letters corresponding to phonetically close sounds. At the same time, in oral speech, the sounds are pronounced correctly. Most often replaced: whistling and hissing, voiced and deaf, affricates and their constituent components (h - t, h - u, c - t, c - s). Errors appear in the letter: when denoting the softness of consonants(“lubit”, “lick”, “letter”); vowel substitutions, both stressed and unstressed (cloud - "tocha", forest - "fox").

In the most severe cases, letters are mixed that designate articulatory and acoustically distant sounds (l - k, b - c, p - n) with normal pronunciation of these sounds.

Tokareva O. A. believes that the basis for the replacement of letters denoting phonetically close sounds is the fuzziness of auditory perception, the inaccuracy of auditory differentiation of sounds.

R. I. Lalaeva believes that for correct writing, a finer auditory differentiation of sounds is necessary than for oral speech, because, on the one hand, the lack of auditory differentiation in oral speech can be compensated for by motor stereotypes fixed in speech experience, kinesthetic images. In the process of writing, in order to correctly distinguish and choose a phoneme, a subtle analysis of all acoustic features of sound that are meaningful is necessary. On the other hand, in the process of writing, the choice is made according to the representation, therefore, due to the fuzziness of auditory ideas about phonetically close sounds, the choice of one or another phoneme is difficult, which results in the replacement of letters in writing. R. Becker considers the difficulties of kinesthetic analysis to be the main reasons for the replacement of letters denoting phonetically similar sounds. R. Becker's research shows that children with dysgraphia do not use enough kinesthetic sensations (pronunciation) while writing.

R. E. Levina and L. F. Spirova associate the substitution of letters in writing with phonemic underdevelopment, with unformed ideas about the phoneme, with a violation of the phoneme selection operation.

For correct writing, a sufficient level of functioning of all operations of the process of distinguishing and choosing phonemes is necessary. If any link (auditory, kinesthetic analysis, phoneme selection, auditory and kinesthetic control) is violated, the whole process of phonemic recognition becomes difficult, which is manifested in the replacement of letters in writing.

3. Dysgraphia on the basis of a violation of language analysis and synthesis.

This dysgraphia is based on a violation of various forms of linguistic analysis and synthesis: division of sentences into words, syllabic and phonemic analysis and synthesis. This dysgraphia manifests itself in writing in distortions of the structure of words and sentences. The most complex form of language analysis is phonemic analysis. Therefore, more often with this type of dysgraphia, there are distortions of the sound-letter structure of the word.

The most common errors are:

Omissions of consonants during their confluence (dictation - "dictation");

Vowel omissions ( at home - "dma");

Permutation of letters (dragged - "dragged");

Omissions, additions, permutations of syllables (room - "cat", glass - "kata").

Violation of the division of sentences into words in this type of dysgraphia manifests itself: in the continuous spelling of words with other words, including prepositions (it's raining - "grandfather", in the house - "in the house»); separate spelling of the word (white birch grows by the window»); separate spelling of the prefix and the root of the word (came - "stepped on").

For the correct mastery of the writing process, it is necessary that the phonemic analysis be formed in the child not only in the external, speech, but also in the internal plan, according to the idea.

4. Agrammatic dysgraphia.

According to R. E. Levina, R. I. Lalaeva, this dysgraphia is associated with the underdevelopment of the grammatical structure of speech and can manifest itself at the level of a word, phrase, sentence, text, and is an integral part of a wider symptom complex - lexical - grammatical underdevelopment, which is observed in children with dysarthria, alalia and mentally retarded.

In coherent speech, children have great difficulties in establishing logical and linguistic connections between sentences. The sequence of sentences does not always correspond to the sequence of the described events; semantic and grammatical connections between individual sentences are violated.

At the level of sentences, agrammatisms in writing are manifested in:

Distortion of the morphological structure of the word, replacement of prefixes, suffixes (swept - "swept", kids - "goats");

Changing case endings("many trees");

Violation of prepositional constructions (above the table - "on the table");

Changing the case of pronouns (around him - "around him"). Noun number violation("children run") ; agreement violation ("beladom" ); violation of the syntactic design of speech, which manifests itself in the difficulties of constructing complex sentences, skipping members of a sentence, violating the sequence of words in a sentence.

5. Optical dysgraphia.

This dysgraphia is associated with the underdevelopment of visual gnosis, analysis and synthesis, spatial representations and is manifested in the substitutions and distortions of letters in writing.

Most often, graphically similar handwritten letters are replaced: consisting of the same elements, but differently located in space ( c - e, t - w ); containing the same elements, but differing in additional elements (i - w, p - t, x - f, l - m); mirror spelling of letters; omissions of elements, especially when connecting letters that include the same element, superfluous and incorrectly located elements.

The etiological study of writing disorders is complicated by the fact that it is always retrospective, tk. the factors that caused these disorders may fade into the background by the time they enter school. Nevertheless, the analysis of literature data allows us to establish a number of causes that have arisen simultaneously or sequentially.

Violation of writing may be due to a delay in the formation of certain functional systems that are important for the development of written speech, due to hazards that operate at different periods of a child's development. In addition, dysgraphia occurs with organic speech disorders. R. E. Levina interprets a violation of writing as a manifestation of a systemic violation of speech, as a reflection of the underdevelopment of oral speech in all its links. I. N. Sadovnikova considers one of the reasons the difficulties in the formation of the process of lateralization (functional asymmetry in the activity of paired sensorimotor organs). Unformed in time, as well as cross-folding lateralitis reveals that the dominant role of one of the cerebral hemispheres has not been established. This can lead to speech development disorders. Dysgraphia may be the result of a disorder that occurs in a vast area of ​​praxis and gnosis, which provide the perception of space and time, because. the most important factor of dysgraphia is the difficulty of finding the starting point in space and time. And also in the analysis and reproduction of the exact and temporal sequence. Perhaps a combination of dysgraphia with mental deficiency, hearing or vision loss, bilingualism in the family, irregular schooling.

In the works of A. R. Luria and S. S. Lyapidevsky, the mechanisms of writing and reading are considered from the standpoint of modern neurophysiology. As we know from neurology, at the end of the 19th century, writing was viewed in a simplified way, as a purely motor process that easily relies on a narrowly limited area of ​​\u200b\u200bthe cerebral cortex. O. A. Trkareva writes that the researchers of that time, along with the centers of visual functions, centers for auditory and motor speech, also talked about a special "writing center" (the so-called Exner center - the middle part of the motor area of ​​the left hemisphere). The mechanism of the reading process is undoubtedly dynamic, forming gradually. In the process of learning to read and write, automated writing and reading skills are developed. “At the basis of their formation,” writes S. S. Lyapidevsky, “is a chain of conditioned reflexes superimposed on each other, entering into an interconnection. Thus, the gradual formation of temporary connections (conditioned reflexes) creates certain dynamic stereotypes in the process of learning to read and write, which in the language of psychology is defined by the concept of “skill”.

The act of writing is carried out by the coordinated work of a number of physiological components. Participating in the organization of this process. Various analyzers take part in the processes of reading and writing: auditory, visual, motor, violation of any of them creates a deviation in the normal course of the specified act. The role of a full-fledged auditory analyzer in the act of writing is extremely important. For correct writing, the presence of a precisely differentiated phoneme and its strong connection with the letter is necessary. Difficulties in teaching writing and peculiar errors in writing among students of a mass school are often associated precisely with defects in acoustic analysis and synthesis.

The acoustic analyzer is closely related to the motor and speech-motor (kinesthetic) analyzer. The significance of the motor analyzer in various arbitrary acts is exceptionally important. According to S. S. Lyapidevsky, in children, underdevelopment or weakening of the activity of the motor analyzer may be accompanied by the development of pathological inertia in the formation of motor reflexes, which is also reflected in the formation of writing skills. However, writing is not a narrow-motor act associated only with the movement of the hand. Writing is a kind of verbal expression. According to R. E. Levina, a full-fledged sound analysis is necessary for correct writing. Sound analysis involves sufficient mastery of the sound composition of the word, its acticulation and perception. In the process of writing, the sound composition of the written off word needs to be clarified. This clarification is carried out by pronouncing the written word.

I. M. Sechenov wrote about the connection between the development of auditory perception. According to the author, auditory sensations have the advantage over others that they are already closely associated in early childhood with muscle movements in the chest, larynx, lips, i.e. with feelings in his own conversation. On this basis, auditory memory is also reinforced by tactile memory.

OA Tokareva believes that the process of writing is not limited to the analysis of the sound composition of the word. There are violations in the letter, due to the predominant defeat of the optical systems in the cerebral cortex (occipital-parietal region of the cortex of the left hemisphere). A. R. Luria noted that this nature of the disturbances is due to the fact that the occipital-parietal region of the cerebral cortex is the central apparatus that allows for the whole visual perception of a person, translating visual sensations into complex optical images. Preserve and differentiate visual representations and, ultimately, implement the most complex and generalized forms of visual and spatial cognition. In some cases, with this violation, writing is generally impossible, since such a patient loses the graphic image of the letters and cannot reproduce them.

The process of writing is not limited to the participation of the considered mechanisms. The unit of writing is not a designation of a sound or a letter, but a combination of successive sounds that make up a complex of syllables that form a whole word. It is the observance of the desired sequence of sounds, and then the letters that display patterns of sounds, combining them into sound complexes of syllables. Forming then a whole word, it is difficult for children during the initial formation of writing skills.