What products are made from ceramics. General information about ceramics. Preparing clay for work
Ceramic products, as well as glass, are included in the group of silicate products. Ceramic products are products made mainly from clay materials and fired to give strength.
Depending on the firing temperature, as well as the composition of the mass, a pottery shard can turn out to be porous or solid (sintered). To make the surface of ceramic products smooth, easy to clean and not absorb moisture, it is covered with glaze, which is a thin layer of glassy mass.
What is made of ceramics?
Depending on the purpose, ceramic products are industrial and construction, technical, household and artistic and decorative.
Industrial building and technical ceramics include bricks, tiles, stove tiles, facing and floor tiles, etc.
The composition of household and artistic and decorative ceramics includes pottery, as well as dishes and artistic and decorative items made of porcelain, faience and majolica.
Pottery is a dish made from simple colored clays. It can be glazed and unglazed.
Porcelain and faience are products with a white, usually glazed shard, and in porcelain it is solid, sintered, and in faience it is porous.
Majolica products are called products with a porous shard made of white or slightly colored clay, having a relief pattern on the body and covered with colored glaze.
Pottery is classified as a so-called coarse ceramics, and porcelain, faience and majolica are classified as fine ceramics.
Raw materials for ceramic products
The main raw materials for the production of ceramic products are plastic materials, thinning materials and fluxes, or fluxes.
plastic materials. Plastic materials used in ceramic production include various types of clays and kaolin (a clay substance usually white in color, consisting almost entirely of kaolinite). Clays, depending on the impurities they contain, can have different melting points and different colors, and in cases where this color is caused by the presence of impurities of organic origin, such clays become white during firing (the so-called white-burning clays).
Clay and kaolin have the property of plasticity, i.e., the ability to give dough when mixed with water, acquire any shape under external influence and keep this shape.
After firing, clay and kaolin get the hardness of the stone, turning into a shard, which no longer has plasticity and, when mixed with water, does not give plastic dough. These two properties explain the widespread use of clay materials in the production of various products.
Skinny materials. Leaning materials are used in ceramic production to reduce the shrinkage of products, since the high and uneven shrinkage of products from one clay during drying and firing causes deformation and cracking of these products. Such emaciating materials include quartz sand, quartz, broken shard (broken pottery), etc.
Smooth. Fluxes are added to facilitate the sintering of the constituent parts of the ceramic mass. Naturally, floodplains are of particular importance in the production of products with a sintered shard (porcelain, etc.). Feldspar, chalk, limestone are among the floodplains.
pottery
Pottery is made from natural colored clays containing up to 20% sand, or from a mixture of pure clays with an appropriate amount of sand.
To increase plasticity and free from impurities, pottery clay is often frozen, sifted, and sometimes elutriated.
Products are molded from prepared clay dough, most often by hand on rotating, so-called potter's wheels, sometimes using templates. Products of complex shape are made by modeling by hand or in plaster molds.
The molded products are dried, then, as a rule, glazed and fired at 900-1000°.
Glaze on pottery is a fusible glassy mass that makes the surface of pottery smooth and impervious to moisture.
Pottery is glazed in various ways, but most often by dipping products into a suspension (talker), which is a suspension of finely ground glaze in water, or by pouring glaze into products for a certain period. At the same time, moisture is absorbed into the walls of the products, and glaze particles settle (stick) on their surface and, during the subsequent firing of the products, melt, turning into a vitreous mass, which fuses to the walls of the products.
Pottery is most often produced without decorations, but some of its types (jugs, vases, wall dishes) can be decorated. Such products are most often painted with engobe and colored glazes before glazing.
The range of pottery includes: pots, milk jugs, jugs, bowls, dishes, mugs, vases, etc.
Pottery produced at the enterprises of the Ministry of Local Industry is divided into 1st and 2nd grades; utensils of handicraft production are usually produced in one grade. The good quality of pottery is checked by external inspection and tapping. An external examination establishes the correctness of the form and the thoroughness of the glazing. By tapping, they check the integrity of the dishes (cracked dishes rattle) and the quality of firing (well-burned dishes make a high, clear sound when struck).
Porcelain and faience dishes
Materials and production
Porcelain and faience dishes are made mainly from a mixture of kaolin, white and white-burning clays, quartz and feldspar. Ground porcelain and earthenware are also used.
Mass for porcelain most often contains 50% clay materials, mainly kaolin, 25% quartz and 25% feldspar. The mass for faience includes 5-10% feldspar, 35-40% quartz and 50-60% clay materials (mainly white clay). Thus, the main difference between porcelain mass and faience is the higher content of feldspar and kaolin.
The production of porcelain and faience dishes is much more difficult than the production of pottery. It is made up of. mass preparation, shaping, drying, double firing, glazing and coloring.
Prepare the mass for porcelain and faience very carefully. Quartz and feldspar are fired, washed to remove impurities, coarsely ground, then their mixture with coarsely ground cullet is carefully ground in special ball mills. The resulting mass is mixed with clay materials, passed through an electromagnet to remove iron impurities, through a filter press to remove excess moisture, and finally through a mass grinder to obtain a homogeneous mass, which is kept for some time in cellars, and then transferred to molding.
Porcelain and faience utensils are molded using molds and templates or by casting into plaster moulds. In the first case, products are molded from porcelain or earthenware dough in rotating plaster molds (hollow or convex) using templates. In this case, the gypsum mold forms one of the surfaces of the product, and the template, the cut of the edge of which corresponds to the shape of the other surface, levels this surface of the product. In the second case, the liquid mass (slip) is poured into plaster molds having an internal cavity corresponding to the outer surface of the product.
At the same time, a significant part of the moisture is absorbed from the slip by the thick walls of the gypsum mold, and the particles of the mass remain on the surface of its walls, forming the walls of the product. The excess slip is removed and the product after drying is removed from the mold.
The molded products are dried and subjected to the first, so-called waste firing. Firing is carried out before glazing products at a temperature of 1250-1280 ° for faience and 900 ° for porcelain. The fired products are then glazed.
Glazes for faience are usually pre-fused fusible mixtures of glass-forming materials, and for porcelain - a mass similar in composition to a porcelain shard, but more fusible. Porcelain and faience products are glazed most often by dipping them in liquid glaze, that is, in the same way as pottery.
The second, poured, firing is used after glazing products and is carried out at a temperature: for faience - about 1150 ° and for porcelain - about 1400 °. Due to the higher temperature of the second firing, the porcelain shard is sintered and, unlike earthenware, becomes solid rather than porous.
Both during the first and during the second firing, to protect against contamination by flue gases, the products are placed in special forms (capsules or boxes) made of refractory materials.
According to external features, porcelain differs from faience in that it is translucent in a thin layer and, when struck along the edge of the product, makes a long sonorous sound, while faience does not shine through and, when struck along the edge, makes a low, quickly fading dull sound. The glaze on porcelain products is harder, its thermal stability is higher than that of faience products.
Dishes decoration. They decorate (paint) porcelain and faience dishes with special, so-called ceramic, paints. The latter are most often finely ground alloys ground on turpentine, glycerin and other substances, similar in composition to colored fusible glasses, as well as special preparations of gold and silver.
Coloring of dishes can be underglaze and overglaze. In the first case, the products are painted before glazing after the first firing, and the paints are fixed by the second (poured) firing. In the second case, the finished products are painted and the applied paints are fixed by a special, following the coloring, the so-called muffle firing, carried out at a lower temperature than poured firing (about 800-900 °).
The coloring of porcelain products is most often overglaze, faience - overglaze and underglaze.
The limited use of underglaze coloring (especially in porcelain products) is explained by the fact that most ceramic paints cannot withstand the high temperature of poured firing of products and lose their color.
The main types of porcelain and earthenware decoration are as follows.
Tape, layering and tendril - colored strips of various widths applied with a brush to rotating products. An antennae is a strip up to 1 mm wide, a layering is a strip up to 3 mm, a tape is a strip from 3 to 13 mm, and a tape up to 5 mm wide is called narrow, up to 9 mm - medium and above 9 mm - wide.
Stamp - a small one-color pattern, most often applied along the edge of products using a rubber stamp.
To digging and semi-covering - a continuous paint coating of all or part (semi-covering) of the surface of the product. Paint is applied in this case with an airbrush, that is, a device that sprays paint, as well as with a brush and swab. In some cases, in order to obtain unpainted places in the covering in the form of various patterns, pieces of paper are glued to the surface of the products before applying the paint, or the already applied paint is removed (cleaned). In this case, the cover is called "with cleaning".
Stencil - one-color or multi-color non-continuous patterns that are applied using an airbrush and stencils, that is, most often lead or copper plates in which certain through patterns are cut. Such a plate is pressed against the surface of the products and the paint is applied by sawing it through the holes of the stencil.
The stencil is distinguished from other coloring methods by the smooth, as if torn edges of the pattern, the absence of brush strokes and the presence of gaps between the individual parts of a single-color pattern.
Printing - thin continuous contour patterns, which are first printed using metal shafts or plates on tissue paper, and then transferred from it to the surface of the product. In some cases, these contour patterns are additionally painted by hand. Such printing is called "printing with coloring". Patterns applied to products by printing are characterized by the presence of sharply defined monochrome contours.
Decalcomania (abbreviated decal) is usually multi-color solid patterns applied to the product using multi-color decals (similar to children's, but made with ceramic paints).
The decal is distinguished from printing by the absence of a sharply defined one-color contour and brush strokes.
Painting - hand-painted products with a brush or pen. The patterns applied by painting are usually characterized by the presence of noticeable brush strokes and a thicker layer of paint.
Photoceramics - the application of photographic images to products, most often portraits using transparencies, i.e. photo prints on glass. The technique of photoceramics is rather complicated.
Grouping tableware decorations by complexity. Each of the above methods can be used to apply patterns of varying complexity, in addition, the overall design can be done not in one, but in several ways. For example, a decal can be supplemented with a stamp, painting, layering, etc., a stencil can be supplemented with a stamp, layering, etc. Therefore, each of the patterns applied to the dishes belongs to a certain group of complexity for coloring an item and products are priced taking into account the coloring group number.
There are 20 such groups in porcelain dishes, and 12 in earthenware. When determining the complexity group for coloring dishes, the method of applying the pattern (stencil, decal, printing, etc.) is taken into account first of all. Along with this, the nature of the pattern, the presence of additional cuts, the type of paint used are taken into account. So, they distinguish patterns with a bouquet, spreading, side and solid. Bouquet patterns have up to three moldings or drawings, folded - from five and more, side - these are patterns located along the entire side, solid - patterns applied over the entire outer or inner surface of the product.
Additional cuttings are mottling (partial painting of the product), cutting, correcting and finishing the main drawing, glare - a relief stroke with colorless paint, arabesque - a narrow side ornament, surfacing - drawing a pattern on a ribbon with gold or silver.
So, for example, printing (on porcelain) with a bouquet without coloring and without additional decorations belongs to the fifth group, with a layer of paint - to the sixth, with a layer of gold - to the seventh. The same print, but spread out, already belongs to the sixth (without layering), seventh (with paint layering) and eighth (with gold layering) groups, and printing with coloring in two colors - to the eighth, ninth and tenth groups.
Assortment of porcelain and faience dishes
general grouping. Porcelain and faience dishes are subdivided according to purpose, types of products, styles, sizes, nature of decoration (cutting).
By purpose, porcelain and earthenware is divided into tea (cups, saucers, teapots, etc.), coffee (coffee pots, coffee cups) and dining (plates, dishes, bowls, etc.).
The types of dishes are very diverse. So, tea utensils include cups, saucers, mugs, glasses, teapots, sugar bowls, butter dishes, creamers, rinsers, croutons, jugs, milk jars, vases for cookies and sweets, fruits and jams, glasses for eggs. The range of tableware includes plates, dishes, broths, soup vases, gravy boats, salad bowls, saucers, herring pots, mustard pots, salt shakers, pepper pots, cheese boards.
The styles of dishes are currently designated by serial numbers: 1, 2, 5, 39, etc. The styles of porcelain cups are especially diverse (over 40 styles). Along with the designation of styles by numbers, in practice there is also the designation of styles of products with special terms, for example: a saucer with a basin, a quadrangular salad bowl, a steam teapot, etc.
Cookware sizes are specified either by its capacity in cubic centimeters (for hollow dishes) or by diameter (for flat products).
Assortment characteristics. Most types of dishes are made from both porcelain and faience. However, some products are made only from porcelain or, conversely, only from faience. So, for example, teapots are made only from porcelain, and bowls and swimmers are made only from faience.
A brief description of the main types of dishes is given below.
Cups are usually made from porcelain. They are divided by style and size. Styles of porcelain cups are usually indicated by serial numbers (39, 51, 54, 58, etc.). Cup sizes are indicated by their capacity, and sometimes by conventional names: appetizing (375-400 cm 3), semi-appetizing (275-300 cm 3), tea (200-220 cm 3), coffee (110-130 cm 3) and children's (60 cm 3). A significant number of cups are available for sale paired with a saucer.
Porcelain and earthenware saucers are divided into tea, coffee and jam saucers. Tea saucers come in two styles: ordinary and basin (in trade practice, the latter are sometimes called coasters).
Porcelain glasses are made in various shapes: conical - without a handle, cylindrical - without a handle, figured - with a handle and a saucer. Glasses of the latter type are also called goblets. The capacity of porcelain glasses of conical and cylindrical shape - 250 cm 3, curly shape - 375-400 cm 3.
Mugs - a product of a cylindrical shape, with a handle. Porcelain mugs can be with a thick shard, with a capacity of 500 and 400 cm 3, and with a thin shard, with a capacity of 90 to 400 cm 3 . Earthenware mugs are produced with a capacity of 200--400 cm 3.
Porcelain bowls (half-cups) - tea utensils in the form of a round cup without a handle, on a low leg, with a capacity of 220-400 cm3.
Teapots are made only from porcelain, they are distinguished by styles and sizes. The styles of teapots are varied and are indicated by numbers: 92 (the old name is “turnip”), 72 (the old name is “paired”), 39, etc. Teapots that have the same styles as cups are usually called service teapots. The sizes of teapots are determined by their capacity. The capacity of service teapots is usually 600 cm 3 , and other teapots - from 250 to 1400 cm 3 .
Porcelain coffee pots can be of various styles, with a capacity of 500-1400 cm 3. Coffee pots are usually sold as part of a coffee service.
Sugar bowls, like teapots, are made only from porcelain, of different styles (corresponding to the styles of cups), with a capacity of 250, 350 and 500 cm 3.
Porcelain oilers by design are divided into oilers with a cap (on a plate) and oilers with a lid. The capacity of the butter dish is 100 and 200 g. Faience butter dishes are usually produced with a lid, with a capacity of 250 g.
Porcelain and earthenware creamers are produced in various styles, with a capacity of 150 to 325 cm 3 .
Porcelain rinsers can be of different styles (round, beads, service), with a capacity of 500 to 1200 cm 3. Faience rinsing bowls are made in the form of a hemisphere, on a leg, their diameter is from 95 to 215 mm.
Porcelain biscuit bowls are usually produced flat (like a plate), with a diameter of 270 mm, as well as deep oblong, with a diameter of 310 to 335 mm. Earthenware biscuits are made in the form of a wicker basket, on a leg, with a diameter of 200 mm.
Porcelain jugs can be of a wide variety of styles: No. 95, 96, 97, with a capacity of 750-1400 cm 3. Earthenware jugs are less diverse in shape, their capacity is 500-1500 cm 3.
Porcelain milk jugs differ from jugs in the absence of a lid and a smaller variety of styles; their capacity is 500-1000 cm 3.
Vases by appointment are for fruit and for jam. Fruit vases are made from porcelain and faience, for jam - usually from porcelain. The dimensions of the vases are indicated by their upper diameter (for fruit - 240 mm, for jam - 120 mm).
Earthenware fruit bowls are round vases on a low leg, the diameter of their upper part is 130 and 230 mm.
Porcelain and faience plates are divided into deep and shallow according to their capacity. The styles of plates are distinguished by the shape of the edge (with a smooth edge, with a cut edge) and by the nature of the surface of the side (smooth and with a relief pattern along the side). The dimensions of the plates are indicated by diameter. The most common sizes of porcelain deep plates are 200 mm (children's) and 240 mm (ordinary size) and small plates - 150 mm (patty), 175, 200 and 240 mm (snack bars). Faience deep plates come in sizes 200, 220, 240 and 255 mm, and small ones 175-180, 200, 220, 240 mm.
Porcelain and earthenware dishes are round and oval in shape (the so-called trays). Round dishes can be with a flat and cut edge, smooth and faceted; oval dishes - various styles. The usual sizes of round dishes are 300, 325 and 350 mm, oval - 300, 350, 400 and 450 mm (in diameter).
Bouillons are round vessels with lids, which have a small hole for steam to escape, and with two handles. Bouillons are made from porcelain and faience. Bouillon capacity - from 0.6 to 2.4 liters.
Soup vases, or soup bowls, unlike broths, have an oval shape. In the lid they have a cutout for a pouring spoon on one side. Capacity of soup vases - 2 and 3 l.
Gravy boats (vases for sauce) differ from soup vases in capacity (0.8 l).
Porcelain and earthenware salad bowls are divided into rectangular and service bowls in shape. The sizes of salad bowls are determined by the capacity in cubic centimeters (from 120 to 1400 cm 3).
Porcelain saucers come in various shapes, without a tray and with a tray, with a capacity of 35 to 400 cm 3. Earthenware saucers are usually made without a pallet, with a capacity of 400-450 cm 3.
Herring boxes (trays for herrings) of various styles (oval, quadrangular, etc.) are made of porcelain and faience, with a diameter of 135 to 300 mm.
Bowls are made from faience. According to the style, the bowls are divided into ordinary and with a edging (thickened edge), with a diameter of 190 to 265 mm.
Swimmers are faience products, similar in shape to semi-deep plates, their diameter is from 215 to 265 mm.
In addition to the listed products, the assortment of porcelain and faience dishes includes horseradish, mustard, pepper, salt shakers, glasses, for eggs, cheese boards, pickle kegs, ashtrays, spittoons, etc.
Services and headsets. Sets and sets are called sets of dishes of the same style, coloring and quality, having a specific purpose.
Sets can be tea, coffee and dining for 6 and 12 people, sets - only tea for 6 and 12 people.
The tea service is made up of porcelain only. It consists of 6 or 12 cups with saucers, teapot, sugar bowl, creamer and slop bowl.
The coffee service includes 6 or 12 coffee cups with saucers, a coffee pot, a creamer, a sugar bowl and 6 or 12 small plates with a diameter of 175 mm.
A set is a more complete set of dishes. It fully includes a service for 6 or 12 people and an additional 6 or 12 small plates with a diameter of 175 mm, 6 or 12 saucers for jam, a butter dish, a biscuit bowl, a fruit bowl and a vase for jam.
Dinner sets for 6 people usually consist of 34 items, including 24 plates, while dinner sets for 12 people consist of 66 items, including 48 plates. More complete services are also possible, especially for 12 people.
Price lists for porcelain and faience dishes. Each product included in the price list has its own number, which consists of two parts separated by a dash. The first part of this number shows the serial number of the product according to the price list. So, for example, a round porcelain dish with a diameter of 300 mm is indicated by the number 1, and a diameter of 325 mm - by the number 2, a deep plate with a diameter of 240 mm - by the number 88, a tea cup with a capacity of 200-220 cm 3 - by the number 100, etc. The second part of the price list the number characterizes the group of decoration (cutting) of the product.
Sorting porcelain and faience dishes
Porcelain dishes are divided by quality into the highest, 1st, 2nd and 3rd grades, and earthenware - into 1st, 2nd and 3rd grades.
The grade of dishes is determined according to the defects found on it, taking into account the type (name) of the defect, its size, location on the product (on the front or back), the size of the product, the number of defects of the same name and the total number of defects on the product.
Among the defects that can be on porcelain and faience dishes are: insufficient whiteness of the shard; deformation (deviation from the correct shape), which is especially common in porcelain dishes; fly - dark spots on the shard, formed when the mass was contaminated with iron particles; pimples and blisters - swelling on the surface of the shard; blockage - particles of mass or capsules that have melted to the shard, in which products are fired; crevices and cracks - glazed and unglazed; cek - small cracks in the glaze; bald spots - places not covered with glaze; glaze sagging - an uneven layer of glaze, most often on the edges of products; incorrect mounting - skewed handles and spouts, incorrect selection of covers, etc.; fragility of paints - rebounding of paint, erasable paint.
The grade of dishes is indicated by applying a mark on the bottom of the products with indelible paint of various colors: red (for the highest grade of porcelain and the 1st grade of faience), blue (for the 1st grade of porcelain and the 2nd grade of faience), green (for the 2nd grade porcelain and 3rd grade earthenware) and brown or black (for 3rd grade porcelain).
High-quality porcelain and faience ware should be of the correct form, stable, with evenly and firmly attached handles or legs, with a solid, even glaze. Fistulas (through holes), glaze streaks, scratching clogs, large bubbles, dry glaze, exposing the shard, peeling paint, a through gap between the body and the lid of the product are not allowed in the dishes.
majolica crockery
Majolica is currently called products that, as a rule, have relief decorations on the body and are covered with colored glaze.
By the nature of the crock, majolica products are usually similar to faience, however, in some cases, slightly colored pottery clays are also used in the production of majolica. Majolica products are molded mainly by casting in plaster molds.
According to the nature of the decoration, majolica products without painting with colored glaze (one-color, two-color and four-color) and products painted with colored glazes or paint over solid one-color glaze are distinguished.
The main types of majolica dishes are vases for fruit and sweets, mugs for beer, jugs, butter dishes, ashtrays, biscuits-breadbaskets, salt shakers, glasses for eggs, cups with saucers, water appliances, mugs with a lid “get drunk, don’t spill over”, etc.
The dimensions of these products are indicated by their capacity in cubic centimeters or liters, as well as by diameter in millimeters.
Majolica dishes are sorted, as well as earthenware, into the 1st, 2nd and 3rd grades.
Artistic and decorative products
Artistic and decorative products include flower vases, wall plates, various sculptural products, busts, bas-reliefs and some types of artistically designed dishes.
Flower vases are made from porcelain, faience and majolica. Porcelain flower vases are especially diverse. They can be of various styles and sizes, they are decorated mainly with paintings, often with the use of a continuous covering.
Wall plates are made of porcelain, with a diameter of 250 mm, they are most often decorated with paintings.
Sculptural products are very diverse in terms of assortment, for example: an accordion player, a builder girl, Nakhimovites, a girl with a cat, a trumpeter hare, a quartet, a sitting bear cub, an elephant, etc. The vast majority of these products are produced glazed with painted paints or gold.
Busts and bas-reliefs are unglazed or glazed porcelain items.
Artistic dishes include porcelain decanters for wine, stacks of decanters, mustard pots, mugs, oilers, tea caddies, tableware, etc. They decorate these dishes manually with paints and gold.
Articles for products of this group are designated by serial numbers.
Sorting. In terms of quality, busts and bas-reliefs are of the highest and 1st grade. Vases and other porcelain products are divided into the highest, 1st, 2nd and 3rd grade, faience and majolica - into the 1st, 2nd and 3rd grade.
Marking, packaging, transportation and storage of ceramic products
Marking. Pottery is not subject to special marking. Porcelain, faience and majolica products are marked by applying a stamp with indelible paint on the bottom of each product indicating the manufacturer and grade. In addition, a paper label is inserted (or pasted) into each pack indicating the price list number and coloring group of products packed in this pack.
Packing and transportation. Pottery is packed in straw, shavings, etc. It is transported in covered wagons without containers.
Porcelain and faience dishes are transported either without containers, in covered wagons (wagon shipments), or in boxes or barrels. When transporting plates and saucers, as well as cups, if they are transported together with saucers, they are wrapped in paper through one piece, all other products - each separately. Cups are wrapped in a bag of 4-6 pieces together with saucers. Services and headsets are packed in sets. Porcelain and faience dishes are placed in a wagon or box in basically the same way as glassware, that is, in rows. Packing material is laid between the rows.
Storage. The storage conditions for ceramic tableware are similar to those for glassware; most often, such dishes are stored together with glassware.
For the rational use of storage space and ease of holiday, ceramic dishes are stacked in several rows in height. So, plates, if they are wrapped through one in paper, put one on top of the other - up to 120 pieces; cups with saucers, if they are wrapped in packs, - up to 10 rows in height with 4-5 sheets of thick paper every 2 rows; teapots - in 10 rows with shifting each row with 2-3 layers of thick paper.
Basics of production of ceramic goods. The production of ceramic products includes the following main operations: mass preparation, product molding, drying, firing and decoration.
Materials used for ceramic production are usually divided into basic and auxiliary. The main ones include materials used for the preparation of ceramic masses, glazes, ceramic paints; auxiliary - materials used for the manufacture of plaster molds, capsules.
The main materials are divided into plastic, thinning, flux, glazing and ceramic paints.
Plastic materials are clays and kaolins. Clays and kaolins are formed as a result of the decay of rocks such as granite, gneiss, feldspar. Kaolins differ from clay in their purer chemical composition, lower plasticity, and greater refractoriness.
Weakening materials are quartz and pure quartz sands, they help to reduce the plasticity of clays, reduce shrinkage and deformation of products during drying.
Fluxes lower the melting and sintering temperature of clay materials, impart density, translucency, and mechanical strength to the ceramic shard; these include feldspar, pegmatite, chalk, limestone, dolomite.
Glaze-forming materials (glaze) are a thin vitreous layer on the surface of ceramic products. It protects the crock from mechanical influences, improves its hygiene, and gives the surface of the product a better appearance. Glazes are transparent and opaque (deaf), colorless or colored.
Ceramic paints are used to decorate porcelain, faience, majolica and other products. The basis of ceramic paints are metals and their oxides, which, when heated, form colored compounds with silicates, aluminates, borates and other substances on the shard of ceramic products. According to the nature of the application, ceramic paints are divided into underglaze and overglaze.
Underglaze paints are applied to an unglazed naked shard, then the product is covered with glaze and fired.
Overglaze - applied to a shard covered with glaze, and fixed by special firing at a temperature of 600-850 ° C.
The preparation of ceramic mass is carried out by the sequential implementation of a number of technological processes: cleaning of raw materials from harmful mineral inclusions, crushing, grinding, sifting through sieves, dosing and mixing.
Products are molded from plastic and liquid (slip) ceramic masses. Products of simple shapes (cups, plates) are molded from plastic mass with a moisture content of 24-26% in plaster molds using steel templates on automatic and semi-automatic machines.
The method of casting from a liquid mass - slip with a moisture content of 30-35% into plaster molds is indispensable in the production of ceramic products, where the complexity and variety of forms preclude the use of other molding methods. Casting is carried out by manual or automatic methods.
Drying helps to increase the strength of ceramic products formed from plastic mass or cast from slip. Drying is carried out in convection (conveyor, chamber and tunnel) and radiation dryers at a temperature of 70-90 °C.
Roasting is the main technological process. As a result of complex physicochemical transformations occurring at high temperatures, ceramic products acquire mechanical strength.
Roasting is carried out in two steps. For porcelain products, the first firing (scrap) occurs at a temperature of 900-950 ° C, and the second (poured) - at a temperature of 1320-1380 ° C. For faience products, the first firing is carried out at a temperature of 1240-1280 °C, and the second - at a temperature of 1140-1180 °C. Two types of furnaces are used: tunnel (continuous) and forges (intermittent).
Decoration of products is the final stage in the production of porcelain and faience products, which consists in applying special cuts to linen (unpainted semi-finished product) by two methods: manual and semi-mechanized.
The antennae, layering, tape are continuous circular strips (antennae 1 mm wide, layering - from 1 to 3 mm, tape - from 4 to 10 mm).
The stencil is applied with an airbrush using plates made of thin tin or foil, having cutouts, the contours of which correspond to the applied pattern. It can be single color or multicolor.
Coverings are of the following types: solid - the entire product is covered with a uniform layer of paint; semi-covering - the product is covered with paint with a width of 20 mm or more, descending - the paint is applied with a weakening tone to the bottom of the product; roofing with cleaning - a cleaning of the pattern was made along the continuous roofing; roofing with cleaning and coloring with paints and gold.
Printing is applied to the product from a printed impression on paper, thus obtaining a graphic monochromatic pattern, which is usually painted with one or more colors.
A stamp is the easiest way to decorate. The drawing is applied with a rubber stamp. More often stamps are applied with gold.
Decalomania (decal) occupies a major place in the decoration of products. The drawing is transferred to the product using a decal made by a lithographic method. Currently, a sliding decal is used. A cellulose acetate film is applied to the lining paper, on which the pattern is printed. When wetting, the film with the pattern is separated from the paper and remains on the product. In the process of muffle firing, the film burns out, and the paint fuses with the surface of the product.
Silk-screen printing is a promising way to decorate ceramic products. The pattern is printed through a silk mesh, on which a stencil is applied. The item to be decorated is placed under the silk mesh. A rubber roller with paint passing through the mesh pushes it into the cutouts of the stencil and thus the pattern is transferred to the product.
Picturesque works are done with a brush or pen by hand. Depending on the complexity, painting can be simple and highly artistic.
Photoceramics reproduce on the product portraits of famous people, views of cities, it is especially effective in color.
Properties of ceramic products. The main properties of ceramic products are physical and chemical. The properties of ceramic products depend both on the composition of the masses used and on the technological features of their production.
The main properties are bulk density, whiteness, translucency, mechanical strength, hardness, porosity, thermal stability, sound wave propagation speed, chemical resistance.
The bulk density of porcelain is 2.25-2.4 g / cm 3, and faience 1.92-1.96 g / cm 3.
Whiteness is the ability of a material to reflect light falling on it. Whiteness is especially important for porcelain products. Whiteness is determined visually by comparing the test sample with a standard or using a spectrophotometer.
Translucency is characteristic of porcelain, which is translucent even with a large thickness of the product, as it has a dense sintered shard. Earthenware products do not shine through because the shard is porous.
Mechanical strength is one of the most important properties on which the durability of the product depends. Specific mechanical strength, i.e. the ratio of the applied force to a unit of bottom thickness is determined by the method of free fall of a steel ball along the bottom of the product. In faience, it is higher than in porcelain. The impact strength of the pendulum method, on the contrary, is lower for earthenware than for porcelain.
The hardness of the glaze layer according to the Mohs mineralogical scale for porcelain is 6.5-7.5, and for faience - 5.5-6.5, microhardness is determined by indentation of a diamond pyramid (according to Vickers). Porcelain glazes are hard, majolica glazes are soft, and faience glazes are medium.
Porosity is determined by the water absorption method, which; for porcelain it is 0.01-0.2%, for faience - 9-12%.
Thermal stability characterizes the ability of a product to withstand sudden changes in temperature. The thermal resistance of porcelain products is higher than that of earthenware. So, in accordance with the current GOSTs, the glaze for porcelain products must withstand temperature drops from 205 to 20 ° C, and for earthenware - from 145 to 20 ° C (for colorless glazes) and from 135 to 20 ° C (for colored glazes).
The speed of propagation of sound waves in porcelain products is 3-4 times higher than that of earthenware, therefore, when a wooden stick is struck on the edge, porcelain products emit a high sound, and faience - deaf.
The chemical stability of glazes and ceramic paints used for household porcelain and faience products should be high, since they should not be destroyed when treated with weak acids and alkalis at ordinary temperatures or when heated to 60-65 ° C.
Classification and range of ceramic products. All ceramic goods are divided into coarse and fine ceramics. Rough pottery products have a heterogeneous structure of the shard, distinguishable by the naked eye, in addition, the shard has a natural color from yellow to brown tones.
For products of fine ceramics, a sintered finely porous shard is characteristic, with a homogeneous, dense structure.
Rice. The main types of decorations for ceramic products:
1 - layering; 2 - tape; 3 - stencil; 4 - stamp; 5 - solid cover; 6 - roofing descending; 7 - seal; 8 - printing with coloring; 9 - decalcomania; 10 and 11 - painting;
12 and 13 - photo on ceramics; 14 and 15 - relief cutting
Fine ceramic products include two groups:
1) products with a shard sintered in a fracture (hard porcelain, soft, bone and frit porcelain, fine stone products);
2) products with a porous shard (faience, majolica, semi-porcelain).
Hard porcelain is characterized by high mechanical strength, chemical and thermal resistance. Russian factories produce mainly porcelain products from hard porcelain, which is prepared from a mass containing 50% clay substances, 25% feldspar and 25% quartz.
Soft porcelain has high translucency, but lower thermal and mechanical strength. The masses used in the production of soft porcelain contain 30% clay materials, 30-36% feldspar and 20-45% quartz. Soft porcelain is used in the manufacture of art products.
Bone china is made from a mass that, in addition to the usual components, includes 20-60% bone ash. Bone china is characterized by high translucency, but at the same time low mechanical and thermal strength. It is used for the manufacture of souvenir dishes.
Frit porcelain is similar in composition to glass, as it does not contain clay materials. Due to the insufficient hardness of the glaze and the laboriousness of the technological process, this type of porcelain is rarely used for making dishes.
Fine-stone products have a color that depends on the natural properties of clay (light gray, cream). These products have high thermal stability. They make chemical fine stoneware, as well as mugs, coffee and tea sets.
Faience has a white porous petiole, the water absorption of which ranges from 9-12%. Faience products are covered with fusible glaze. The composition of the faience mass includes 65% clay materials, 30% quartz or quartz sand and 2-5% feldspar.
Majolica is a type of faience with high porosity. Majolica products are usually covered with colored glaze.
Semi-porcelain in its properties occupies a middle position between porcelain and faience and is mainly used for the manufacture of sanitary products. Semi-porcelain products are cheaper than porcelain and higher in quality than earthenware.
Ceramic products are divided into dishes and artistic and decorative products. In turn, the dishes can be tableware, tea and coffee purposes.
Porcelain products are divided by wall thickness into ordinary ones with a wall thickness of 2.5 (cup) - 4 mm and thin-walled 1.4 (cup) - 2.5 mm, all the rest.
Depending on the size, ceramic products are divided into small and large.
According to the shape of the product is divided into hollow and flat.
Flat include saucers, dishes, plates, herring and others; to hollow - glasses, cups, mugs, bowls, teapots, coffee pots, sugar bowls, jugs and others.
Depending on the presence of a glaze layer, glazed and unglazed (biscuit) porcelain products are distinguished.
According to the completeness of the product, there are piece and complete (services, headsets, sets). A feature of the products included in the kit is the unity of decorative design, design and shape.
Porcelain. By purpose, the assortment of household porcelain products is divided into dining, tea, household utensils and others.
Artistic and decorative products are especially highlighted.
Porcelain tableware is represented by a wide variety of products, both in terms of names, and in styles and sizes.
Dishes are produced in round and oval sizes of 300, 350, 400 and 450 mm.
Vases for soup or compote are made with lids of different styles with a capacity of 2000-3500 cm 3 .
Saucers come without a tray and with a tray (on a plate) with a capacity of 80 to 400 cm 3.
Salad bowls are characterized by different styles (round, oval, quadrangular) and a capacity of 1200-1400 cm 3, quadrangular have a capacity of 120 to 1000 cm 3.
Herring boxes are available in lengths of 135 and 250-270 mm.
Plates are the main type of tableware. They are deep and shallow, for adults and children. Deep plates are produced with a diameter of 240 and 200 mm and small 240 mm (support for a deep plate 240 mm), 200 mm (for second courses), 175 mm (snack bar) and 158 mm (patty). Children's plates deep and shallow with a diameter of 178 mm are part of the children's sets. In addition to the listed products, this group includes products for spices - mustard, salt, pepper and horseradish.
Tea and coffee utensils are very diverse in style, size and decor. Cups and saucers occupy the main place in the assortment of this group. Tea cups differ from coffee cups in capacity. So, coffee cups have a capacity of 60, 85 and 100-130 cm 3. The capacity of tea cups is 200-250 cm 3 (ordinary), 260-275 cm 3 (medium-sized), 300-350 cm 3 (large-sized) and 400 and 500 cm 3 (gift).
Kettles distinguish between brewed (for brewing tea) with a capacity of 250, 350-375, -450, 500-700, 735-800 cm 3 and topping up (for boiling water) with a capacity of 1000-1250, 1400 and 3000 cm 3.
Glasses are produced in different styles with saucers with a capacity of 375-400, 500 and 600 cm 3 .
Coffee pots are made in different styles with a capacity of 500, 750, 1000-1250, 1400 cm 3.
Mugs are produced with and without a handle, with a thickened crock and special resort flat mugs with a hole in the handle. The capacity of the mugs ranges from 90 to 500 cm 3 .
Bowls are conical in shape, without handles with a capacity of 140-150, 220-250, 350-400 cm 3.
The group of tea and coffee utensils also includes vases for fruit and leg jams.
Other products are syrniki, napkin holders, etc.
Complete dishes are produced in the form of services, sets, sets, it is characterized by the unity of form (style) and cutting.
Services and sets according to their intended purpose are dining, tea and coffee for 6 and 12 people. The set includes more items than the service of the same purpose.
Artistic and decorative products occupy a significant place in the group of porcelain products. The range of artistic and decorative products includes sculpture (figures of people, animals, birds, fish, etc.), busts, wall bas-reliefs, flower vases, various products (powder boxes, ashtrays, pencil boxes, wall-mounted dishes and plates, decanters for wine , commemorative medals, etc.).
Applied art products are characterized by a combination of utilitarian properties with high aesthetic ones. These products are diverse in form, they are more carefully finished and decorated (more often by painting).
Faience products. The range of faience products is simpler and less diverse than similar porcelain products. A significant share is occupied by flat products (plates, bowls, herring boxes, etc.). There are no tea cups, teapots, coffee pots in the assortment of faience products. Basically, the assortment of faience dishes is represented by tableware. Faience crockery consists of piece and complete items. Complete products include dinner sets, sets of plates (of different sizes and children's sets).
Artistic and decorative products occupy an insignificant place in the assortment of faience products, mainly sculpture, flower vases and ashtrays of various styles.
Majolica and pottery. The range of majolica products includes tableware and artistic and decorative items.
For majolica products, cutting with various colored glazes (majolica glazes) and underglaze paints is typical.
The range of majolica products is represented by both piece and complete dishes. They produce mugs, butter dishes, coffee pots, crackers, ashtrays, glasses for eggs, syrniki, salad bowls, mead bowls; especially widely represented in the assortment are devices for fruit, pancakes, salad, eggs, water, jam, compote, tea, spices, as well as coffee and children's devices.
Artistic and decorative products are flower vases, wall dishes and plates, ashtrays, sculpture and others.
Pottery refers to rough ceramics. The main raw materials are fusible clays of medium plasticity. These products are molded on a potter's wheel or in plaster molds. After drying and glazing, they are fired in kilns at a temperature of 900-1000 °C.
The assortment of pottery consists of lids, pots, bowls, jugs, oilers, biscuits, bowls for sour cream and butter, and flower pots. The following artistic and decorative products are produced from pottery mass: flower vases, planters, wall dishes, sculpture, toys, etc.
Assessment of the quality of ceramic goods. Ceramic products must be durable, easy to use, and have a beautiful appearance. They are made in accordance with the samples approved in the prescribed manner. When evaluating the quality of ceramic products, attention is paid to the quality indicators of the sherd, glaze and decoration. Depending on the appearance, physical and technical indicators, the nature, size and number of defects, according to the current state standards, the dishes are divided into 1 and 2 grades.
Whiteness, thermal stability, water absorption, acid resistance are determined according to the methods set forth in GOSTs.
The whiteness of porcelain products for grade 1 must be at least 64%, for grade 2 - 58%. For faience products, whiteness is not regulated.
Translucency is typical only for porcelain products, which are translucent in layers up to 2.5 mm thick. Porcelain and earthenware plates and saucers are considered to be mechanically strong if they are stored in piles for five days (the first 120 pieces each, and the second 100 and 150 pieces each) do not collapse.
The presence of defects is established during an external examination of the product. All the variety of defects found on ceramic products are divided into defects in the shard and glaze and decoration defects.
Flaws in the shard and glaze. The deformation of the product is expressed in its curvature. This defect occurs as a result of the directed drying and firing processes. Especially characteristic for flat products. The deformation is measured using a stepped template in millimeters and for the main types of products it has tolerances in accordance with GOST.
Potholes and crevices on the product are formed during production, transportation and storage.
Glazed one-sided cracks are non-through cuts in the shard.
The spill of glaze on the shards should be smooth and uniform. Minor leaks are allowed. Small dispersed punctures that do not violate the presentation of the product are allowed. Haze glaze in grade 1 is not allowed.
Bald patches and gathering of glaze appear as unglazed areas. On the front side of porcelain products in grade 1, and on faience products in grades 1 and 2 are not allowed.
Dry glaze and a flying edge are found on faience products. Dry glaze occurs as a result of insufficient thickness of the glaze layer on the product. The flying edge sharply reduces the hygienic properties of the product; it is characterized by glaze rebound along its edges in grade 1 is not allowed.
Tseck and hair are cracks in the glaze layer. Products with these defects are transferred to marriage.
Blockage appears on products as a result of chipping of fireclay grains from capsules. It can be underglaze, as well as overglaze, which can be sanded.
The fly appears as dark dots on the product. This defect appears due to the ingress of iron oxides into the ceramic mass.
Traces of skids, combs are typical only for faience products and are allowed on the reverse side, polished or brushed.
Incorrect mounting of product parts is their asymmetrical arrangement, deviation of attached parts (spouts, handles) from the vertical and horizontal planes.
Undermining of attached parts is allowed if it is hairy and non-through and does not violate the mechanical strength of the product. However, undermining the spouts of teapots is not allowed.
Decoration defects. Overburning or underburning of paints is formed when the muffle firing is violated. The paint must not rub off.
Assembly of decals is allowed if it does not violate the pattern.
Overglaze paint blots on the front side of the product in grade 1 are not allowed.
Peeling off the paint translates the product into marriage.
According to GOST, the number of permissible defects should not exceed for porcelain products for grade 1 - 3, for grade 2 - 6; for faience products, respectively - 3 and 6.
Marking, packaging, transportation and storage of ceramic products. Each porcelain and faience product is marked with a trademark, which is applied to the center of the bottom of the product with ceramic paint and fixed by firing. The trademark must be legible.
When packing dishes, consumer containers are used (boxes made of cardboard, paper and combined materials); packs of cardboard, paper and combined materials and paper bags and of combined materials, auxiliary materials (wrapping and interlining paper, corrugated cardboard, heat-shrinkable materials, polyethylene film, polystyrene, wood shavings, etc.); transport containers (wooden boxes and corrugated cardboard boxes).
Cups with saucers are stacked in the following way: the cup is placed upside down on the saucer on the front side, previously lined with paper, and wrapped in paper. Then a stack containing from two to twelve products is formed, which is also wrapped in paper. It is permissible to mold feet made up separately from cups and saucers.
Flat products are wrapped in paper through one product, and then in a bag of 25-40 pieces. The enlarged package is tied up with twine or sealed with paper tape and a label is attached indicating the manufacturing plant and its address, product name; the number of products in the package, grades, packaging dates, packer's numbers and GOST or TU numbers.
When packing packages of services, sets, sets, products of the same grade and one decorative design are laid: each item is wrapped in paper. Then the dishes are placed in consumer and transport containers. Souvenir and gift products are placed in corrugated cardboard boxes, on which artistically designed labels are pasted.
The dishes are transported by all means of transport. Basically, the dishes are transported in railway cars and containers, the floor of which is lined with wood shavings in a uniform and dense layer. Rows of packages are also laid with shavings. On containers and railway cars, the manufacturer must make the inscription "Caution glass".
Dishes sent to the regions of the Arctic, the Far North and remote areas are packed in accordance with special specifications.
Porcelain and faience products are stored in closed dry rooms on racks. In this case, heavier products are placed on the lower racks, lighter ones - on the upper ones. Plates can be stored in stacks (porcelain 120 pieces, earthenware 100 pieces).
Ceramics as a polycrystalline solid generally consists of three main phases:
- crystalline, composed of grains,
- vitreous (amorphous) - in the form of interlayers located between the grains,
- gas - in the form of pores between grains surrounded by interlayers of the amorphous phase.
Porcelain
Faience
Fine stone products
Majolica
Terracotta
Pottery
Chamotte ceramics
The main difference between ceramic materials lies in the different composition and ratio between the three phases that determine the properties of ceramic products. Structure, i.e. the structure of the ceramic body depends on the composition of the raw materials and the technology of this material. According to the dispersion (size) of the elements of the structure ceramic materials are fine-ceramic and coarse-ceramic. If the ceramics consists of fine grains, its fracture is uniform and the particles are hardly distinguishable, then such material belongs to fine ceramics (primarily porcelain, faience, majolica, etc.). If large grains are observed in the structure of ceramics, the structure itself is heterogeneous, then we have a coarse ceramic product (chamotte products, pottery, terracotta). Pottery and terracotta, made from high-quality clays without the admixture of large particles, can also be classified as fine ceramic products, which indicates the conditionality of such a division.
The main types of ceramic materials: porcelain, faience, fine-stone products, majolica, terracotta, pottery, fireclay ceramics.
Porcelain is a type of white ceramic with a dense conchoidal fracture, the highest achievement of ceramic technology. For the manufacture of porcelain, refractory white-burning clays and kaolins, quartz and feldspars are used (the ratio of plastic and lean materials is 1: 1). Distinguish between soft and hard porcelain. Distinctive features of porcelain are: whiteness, translucency, mechanical strength, hardness, thermal and chemical resistance. Scope: from the manufacture of dishes and technical products to the creation of unique works of art.
Faience (from the name of the Italian city of Faenza) is a type of white ceramic with a finely porous fracture. For the manufacture of faience, refractory white-burning clays, quartz and various additives are used. Unlike porcelain, it has an opaque porous shard; the temperature of the scrap firing exceeds the temperature of the poured one. Distinguish between soft and hard faience. Scope: production of utensils, technical products, decorative products, building ceramics.
Fine-stone products - a type of ceramics, characterized by a white or colored sintered shard, with a uniform conchoidal fracture. For the manufacture of fine-stone products, refractory and refractory clays are used, the chemical composition of which varies over a fairly wide range. Fine-stone products of low-temperature and high-temperature sintering are distinguished. Depending on the raw materials used, the degree of sintering and the color of the shard, and the features of the technology, thin-stone products have various names: semi-porcelain, low-temperature porcelain, “stone goods”, etc. Thin-stone products are characterized by low water absorption (0.5 ... 5.0%). Their scope: production of utensils, decorative and interior ceramics.
Majolica (from the name of the island of Mallorca) is a type of ceramics with a porous, naturally colored shard from light cream to red (brick) color, covered with a transparent or deaf (opaque) glaze. For the manufacture of majolica, fusible clays are used in their pure form or with the introduction of thinning and fluxing additives. Often, majolica products are covered with a layer of white clay, engobe, which hides the natural color of the shard. The low temperature of the glaze firing of majolica (960–1050°C) makes it possible to use a wide palette of colored glazes and enamels for decoration. Scope: production of ware, a facing tile, decorative ceramics.
Terracotta (terra (Italian) - earth, cotta - burnt) - a type of ceramics, unglazed ceramic products with a porous shard. For the manufacture of terracotta, high-quality low-shrinkage clays are used, which have a uniform color and a relatively high melting point. Sometimes terracotta is covered with engobe. Scope: making sculptures, tiles, tiles, etc.
Pottery - ceramic products with a natural color of fired clay, relatively high porosity, fine-grained, usually unglazed. For the manufacture of this type of ceramics, local low-melting pottery clays are used without the use of any other components, with the exception of small additions of quartz sand. Sometimes products are covered with a layer of engobe or glaze. Scope: production of ware, jewelry, souvenirs.
Fireclay ceramics is a type of coarse ceramic products that has a porous, coarse-grained, often light-colored shard. Chamotte is fired ground clay. To bind the grains of fireclay in fireclay products, clays are used, kneading them until a plastic mass is formed. Chamotte masses are used to make small sculptures, floor vases, bricks and some other types of architectural ceramics.
All of the above ceramic materials, no matter how they differ in the composition of raw materials and, consequently, in the final chemical composition and properties of products, they are united by a technology that determines the sequence of operations.
Principal technological scheme for the production of ceramics
- Procurement of raw materials (clay, fireclay, sand, etc.)
- Preparation of the molding material
- Molding
- Drying
- Burning
The compositions of the ceramic masses differ significantly both in the initial raw material and in their quantity. Knowing the properties of raw materials, an experienced ceramist can easily determine by the composition of the mass what products and under what conditions can be made from it. It is far from always possible to prepare the mass strictly according to the recipe, since the composition of raw materials varies even within the same deposit. When preparing ceramic masses under production conditions, the laboratory constantly monitors the chemical composition of incoming raw materials and makes the necessary adjustments to the composition of the mass. A significant influence on the properties of ceramic masses and the quality of products from them is exerted by the method of mass preparation, the method of forming products, drying conditions, and especially the temperature and gas firing regime. Thus, only experimentally it is possible to obtain the desired results in the manufacture of ceramic masses for certain products.
Weights for pottery
Pottery is a product with a porous shard, made from natural-colored clays by hand molding on a rotating potter's wheel. The pottery method of producing ceramic dishes is one of the most ancient. Ancient Chinese porcelain wares were also molded by potters. For molding products on a potter's wheel, the ceramic mass must have sufficient plasticity, not deform under its own weight, not contain foreign inclusions (especially lime), withstand drying and firing without deformations and cracks. Sometimes all these requirements are met by natural clay without any additives. Pottery ceramic products are usually colored from gray-yellow to dark red, depending on the content of iron oxide (ResOe).
Pottery clays usually contain clay minerals, quartz, feldspar, calcium and magnesium carbonates, iron oxides, alkali metal compounds, soluble salts, organic matter. As lean additives, quartz sand (preferably river, of various fractions), fireclay of the same mass, and chalk are added to pottery clays for better adhesion to the glaze shard. Pottery can be decorated with engobe, unglazed and glazed, fired at temperatures from 700°C (unglazed) to 1000°C (depending on the melting point of the glaze). After firing at 1040-1050°C, the water absorption of the shard is 14-15%. Firing can be double and, if clay allows, once. Lead-free strontium glazes are used for decoration.
Terracotta masses
Terracotta - unglazed porous ceramic products from clays that create a uniform, even color of the shard after firing. The porosity of products ranges from up to 12% or more. The usual colors of terracotta are from yellow to red-brown, with reduction firing from light gray to dark gray. Chamotte is often added to terracotta masses. They are used to make architectural, garden and park decorations, sculpture, and interior items. For the manufacture of terracotta, clays are used that do not contain water-soluble salts, since otherwise light spots (efflorescences) form on the surface of the product after firing.
To change the color of the shard, metal oxides are sometimes introduced into terracotta masses: iron, chromium, manganese, cobalt, etc., ceramic pigments, or products are coated with engobes. The terracotta is fired once, usually up to 1000°C, without bringing the shard to sintering. The gas and temperature conditions of firing significantly affect the color and tone purity of terracotta products.
Terracotta mass for finishing and casting (LVHPU):
Cambrian clay (Pulkovo) -50%, Thin chamotte of the same clay -25%. Chalk -25%
Prepared by wet grinding, filtered, dehydrated if necessary. It is used for softening terracotta sculptures, architectural details for vase casting. After firing up to 900-950°C gives a total shrinkage of 5-6%. Porosity during firing at 900°C-21%. Molding humidity - 21-22%, Foundry slip contains 41.5% water, 0.2% soda and 0.3% liquid glass. From this mass, vases up to 1 meter high can be cast.
Terracotta multichamotte masa for molding and casting (LVHPU):
Clay Chasov-Yarskaya - 40%, Thin fireclay of the same clay-60%
Light weight, suitable for forming decorative panels, wall dishes, large garden vases, etc. Working humidity-22%. When fired at 900-950 "C, it gives a total shrinkage of -6%, porosity - 18%. The mass is heat-resistant and allows rapid cooling. The mass behaves satisfactorily in the slip state at 40% water and 0.2% soda, but with a thinner grinding of chamotte and increasing the clay content due to chamotte.The chamotte used in the molding mass should not be of the same grain composition.For example:
40% fraction from 1.5 to 0.5 mm and 60% fraction from 0.5 to 0.3 mm to the total weight of fireclay.
Terracotta mass for finishing and casting (BGTHI):
Clay Gaydukovskaya-75%, Chamotte of the same clay-25%
After firing at 900-950°C, the products acquire a beautiful "terracotta" color. Products must be fired in an electric furnace or in a muffle gas furnace, since even with a weak reducing flame, a dirty yellow color is formed.
stone masses
Stone products are made from masses, which include refractory and refractory clays, which have a large interval between the sintering temperature and the onset of deformation (sintering interval). The sintering interval for stone-making clays is 300-500°C (for pottery masses 50-100°C). In addition to clay, the composition of stone masses includes floodplains, emaciating materials, and sometimes dyes. Stone products are fired twice, the first firing (waste) at 900°C, poured - P50-1300°C. Nepheline syenites are often used as a flux, which causes the color of stone masses and reduces the temperature of their firing.
The compositions of the masses and the production technology of stone products are similar to the production of porcelain. The difference is that low-grade raw materials containing a large amount of impurities are used for stone products. Water absorption of stone products is 3-5%. Stone products are often glazed with feldspar glaze.
Light weight for decorative products:
Stone clay -33%, Quartz sand -25%, Feldspar-25%, Kaolin -17%
For the manufacture of this mass, elutriated clays are used.
The mass is finely ground. Products are molded by plastic molding on molding machines and by casting plaster molds. Waste firing - 900 ° C, poured - 1160-1250 ° C, depending on the melting temperature of the glaze.
faience masses. They are distinguished by a white or light-colored shard, covered with a transparent, deaf colored fusible glaze, which makes it impervious to liquids and gases. Faience products are decorated with underglaze and overglaze paints, solutions of non-ferrous metal salts, engobes / preparators of precious metals, etc. Ware can be made smooth or embossed, with a smooth or figured edge. In terms of its physicochemical and hygienic properties, earthenware is significantly inferior to semi-porcelain, and especially porcelain. The water absorption of earthenware is 9-12%. For the manufacture of faience products, white-burning plastic refractory clays, kaolin and quartz materials are used with the addition of feldspar or carbonic materials, such as chalk, lime, dolomite, magnesite.
Earthenware products, depending on the composition, are divided into hard, clay and lime (soft) faience. Lime-chamotte faience: The mass is suitable for casting decorative products with a white crock. Lime in the composition promotes the use of glazes of different compositions, products can be fired without deformation in the range of 1000-1200 ° C with compaction of the crock and a drop in water absorption with increasing temperature.
The composition of the mass (in%):
Velovskaya clay -27%, Kaolin -14%, Quartz sand -30%, Chalk -5%, Fireclay -24%
Clay earthenware. By the nature of the shard, they are close to pottery, but the color of the shard is yellowish, fine-grained in a break. For these products, both transparent colored and muted glazes are used. Roasting is carried out at a temperature of 920-960°C.
Mass composition (in%):
Freshly burnt refractory clay -75-85%, Flint or quartz -15-25%
Solid faience. The porosity of hard faience is 9-12%. The first firing is carried out at 1250-1280°C / the second (poured) - at 1100-1180°C.
The use of fusible glazes expands the possibilities of decorating earthenware compared to porcelain.
Mass composition (in%):
Veselovskaya clay -32%, Kaolin -31%, Quartz sand -29%, Faience -8%.
Masses for majolica.
The name majolica in the classical sense of the word refers to ceramic products with a porous, slightly colored shard containing lime, covered with white dull enamel based on tin oxide, painted with ceramic paints on raw enamel (Gzhel majolica). These products got their name from the Italian island of Mallorca, where their production first began. The production of majolica in Russia was organized in the middle of the 18th century, as an imitation of Western European faience, which determined the specific technology of their production. Lime brightened the ceramic shard and promoted good adhesion of the white glaze to the shard at low temperatures.
Currently, majolica products are characterized by a painted porous shard covered with a transparent colored or deaf glaze. They are decorated mainly with engobes and colored drip glazes. The raw materials for the production of majolica are colored fusible and refractory clays of medium plasticity containing calcium and magnesium carbonates, quartz sand. Chamotte and floodplains are often added to majolica masses, which improve the performance properties of products. This type of ceramic products includes bowls, jugs, mugs, bread bins, fruit vases, sets for milk, kvass, etc., as well as decorative ceramics - flower vases, wall dishes, table lamps, sculptures. The porosity of majolica in terms of water absorption is 10-15%. Waste firing 800-850°С, poured - up to 1100°С. General shrinkage - 6-8%. The so-called faience majolica, made from faience mass and covered with transparent or deaf flowing glazes (Konakovka faience factory), has become widespread.
Majolica mass for casting (LVHPU):
Clay Nikiforovskaya - 70%, Quartz sand -30%
First, quartz sand is ground with water for 14 hours, then clay is added to the mill and the mass is ground for another 2 hours. The slip is filtered through a sieve 3600 g/cm2. The porosity of the shard after firing at 980°C is -13%. Total shrinkage -6%. The shard matches well with a range of glazes without caking.
Typical mass of GIKI:
Hydromicaceous clay - 60%, Quartz sand - 10%, Chalk - 25%, Waste scrap - 5%.
The mass is prepared according to conventional technology by wet grinding. Poured firing 950-1000°C. The mass is suitable for a wide range of products.
Ukrainian majolica masses are usually made up of clays from various deposits in order to improve the technological properties, for example, to expand the sintering interval, Chasov-Yarskaya clay is introduced. Modern domestic majolica produced by ceramic enterprises contains:
Clay - 63-68%, Chalk - 20%, Quartz sand - 5-17%, Scrap - 7%
Dacite is kaolinized secondary quartzite, which is introduced into ceramic masses instead of the main part of kaolin and quartz sand. When finely ground with water, dacite exhibits signs of plasticity. Contains 75-77% SiO2 15-17% Al2O3 and 5-6% alkaline oxides. Mined in the Primorsky Territory and used for the production of porcelain.
Talc. The theoretical composition of talc is 3MgO 4Si02 H2O. Rocks containing a large amount of talc are called talcites, and talcites with a dense structure are called steatites. Talc is introduced into ceramic masses to increase their refractoriness and resistance to strong temperature differences. Talc, together with CaO, contributes to an increase in the strength of products at a firing temperature of 1000-1050 [)C, but reduces the sintering interval. Ceramic masses containing more than 15% talc tend to absorb the glaze. The main deposits of talc include Onotskoye (Eastern Siberia), Alguiskoye - in the Kemerovo region, Shabrovskoye - near Sverdlovsk, etc. The main physical property of talc is a small coefficient of thermal linear expansion.
Pyrophyllite is a mineral structurally similar to talc and has the chemical composition Al2O3 4SiO2 H2O. The refractoriness of pyrophyllites is 1610-1710°C. The softness of pyrophyllite makes it possible to grind details from it, which, after firing at 1300 °C, correspond to the strength of porcelain. Kazakh, Belarusian, Transcaucasian pyrophyllites are known.
Weight for Wedgwood products:
Quartz sand - 10.9%, enriched kaolin - 10.9%, heavy spar (ВаSO4) - 46.7%, white plastic clay - 14%, pegmatite - 15.6%, gypsum - 1.9%
Products from this mass are glazed only from the inside. The main white mass is decorated with the same mass, but with the addition of a dye. Single firing at a temperature of 1280-1300°C.
The composition of the flare mass PO "MINSKSTROYMATERIALY":
Clay Veselovskaya - 16%, Alumina - 4.5%, Talc - 21%, Prosyanovsky kaolin - 16.5%, Chamotte high alumina - 42%
The mass is heat-resistant, suitable for casting, finishing technical and artistic products. Shrinkage in firing 2.2%. Water absorption after firing 1 ZOO is 14 - 16%. After firing, the mass has a beautiful yellowish color.
Weight for thin-stone products (BGTHI):
Chasov-Yarskaya clay - 25%, Kaolin - 15%, Quartz sand - 25%, Pegmatite - 25%, Fireclay - 10%
Waste firing - 900°С, Poured - 1200°С
Hard porcelain (servicing) factory im. Lomonosov
Prosyanovsky kaolin - 20%, Glukhovetsky kaolin - 18%, Quartz sand - 26%, Feldspar - 18%, Veselovskaya clay - 11%, Porcelain cullet (poured) - 4% Porcelain cullet (steel) - 3%
The firing temperature is 1380-1400°C.
Soft porcelain for sculptural products:
Glukhovetsky kaolin - 22%, Quartz sand - 22.5%, Feldspar - 36%, Veselovskaya clay - 16.5%, Porcelain crushed (hard) - 3%
The firing temperature is 1250-1280°C.
English soft bone china:
Kaolin - 20 - 45%, Quartz - 9/2%, Feldspar - 8 - 22%, Bone meal - 60 - 20%
First firing - 1230°С, Poured firing - 1080-1140°С.
French Soft Frit Porcelain:
Chalk - 17%, Lime marl - 8%, Frit - 75%
The composition of the frit: Fused saltpeter - 22%, Table salt - 7%, Ammonia alum - 4%, Soda - 35%, Quartz sand - 60%
The temperature of the first firing is -1120-1300°C. The second is lower on the melting point of the glaze.
Bone factory them. Lomonosov:
Bone ash calcined. at - 1350°C - 50%, Feldspar - 20%, Veselovskaya clay - 10%, Kaolin - 20%
First firing - 850°С, Poured -1250°С
Ceramic products are widely represented in everyday life and construction. The word ceramics has become so firmly established in the Russian language that we are surprised when we learn that it is of foreign origin. In fact, the word ceramics originates from Greece. The Greek word keramos means pottery. Since ancient times, ceramic products have been obtained by firing clays or their mixtures with certain mineral additives. Excavations show that ceramic products have been produced by man since the Neolithic period (8...3 thousand years BC). Because clays are so common in nature, pottery developed widely and often independently in different parts of the world, and was relatively easy to adopt and spread.
Clays are unconsolidated sedimentary rocks with a predominance of certain minerals, which are hydroaluminosilicates in chemical composition. Geologists distinguish about sixty different types of clays. At present, it is believed that clay minerals are characterized by the presence of layers, including silicon atoms surrounded by four oxygen atoms, and aluminum atoms surrounded by six oxygen atoms. The main properties of clays are plasticity and fire resistance. Clay powder, mixed with water, forms a viscous dough that can be molded and retain the shape given to it. The dough burnt in fire acquires stony hardness and strength. It is on these two properties of clay that the ceramic industry is based, one of the oldest on Earth and in the past one of the most important in its significance for human progress.
Even in ancient times, it was found that good cohesion and viscosity of clay used for the manufacture of ceramic products is achieved by freezing it. To do this, clay is placed in piles 0.7 ... 0.8 m high, watered and covered with earth. For example, for the production of high-quality tiles, freezing in piles is carried out for up to seven years.
The first ceramic products were building materials: bricks, tiles, tiles and others, since they have a simple shape and are more accessible to manufacture. Household utensils and containers: plates and dishes, pots, jugs, amphoras, etc., required a higher skill in molding and firing. In the third millennium BC. the potter's wheel was invented. This was a major step in the pottery industry, as it allowed a sharp increase in the productivity of the craftsman and made dishes with much thinner walls. Following the invention of the potter's wheel, patterns began to be used to make dishes such as plates, which was the next step in establishing mass production of ceramic products.
Ceramics, in comparison with metals, glass, and wood, is least susceptible to atmospheric influences, and therefore samples of the oldest ceramic products have survived to this day in relatively good condition and in large numbers. They provide important information to historians and art historians about the level of culture of peoples and the level of development of technology in different eras.
Already in the second millennium BC. two major Greek civilizations: island (Crete) and continental (Mycenae) - had a very high technical and artistic level of ceramic production. Samples of Mycenaean ceramic art from the 10th to 8th centuries. BC. contained the germs of the future classical Greek art. Art historians call this period the Geometric period by the type of decoration used to decorate vases and other ceramic items, and the period of the Dipylon style, based on the location of the largest finds during excavations. Its characteristic feature was the ribbon-like rhythmic arrangement of geometric motifs, including those borrowed from nature. In the 7th century BC. ceramics has taken an important place in the totality of monuments, which, taken together, we perceive as ancient Greek art. This period is characterized by samples of ceramic products, combining a high technical level and a delicate artistic taste, expressed in the expediency of the forms of products and the methods of decorating them. At this time, a division of labor had already taken place and specialization was used in the implementation of sequential production operations.
We will return to the questions of the artistic value of ceramic products. Currently, ceramic materials are divided into coarse and fine. The former are characterized by high porosity and high water absorption (not lower than 5...10%). These include building bricks, terracotta, wall majolica, floor tiles, tiles. Thin ceramics, in turn, are divided into porous and dense. Fine porous ceramics include faience, semi-porcelain, white and colored majolica, and porcelain is classified as thin dense ceramics.
Terracotta is a type of rough ceramic. It has been known since the Neolithic era, i.e. more than 5 thousand years BC The word terracotta is Italian. Its literal translation means scorched earth. Terracotta is produced by the industry in the form of unglazed monochromatic ceramic products with a porous shard of red, brown or cream colors. The color shade of terracotta largely depends on the firing conditions. Its water absorption is from 8 to 10%. Clays for the production of terracotta are quite widespread. In modern construction, terracotta is used in the form of architectural and decorative products and is used for artistic interior decoration, decoration of gardens and parks in the form of inserts, rosettes, bas-reliefs, tiles for walls and garden paths, stones for fences and fences for flower beds.
When clay is fired in an atmosphere of hydrocarbons, which are formed, for example, when the resinous roots of coniferous trees are burned, ceramic products of silver-black tones can be obtained. This color is due to graphite formed during the catalytic decomposition of hydrocarbons on the surface of hot clay. Ukrainian handicraft potters used this method from time immemorial when making their famous black unglazed ceramic dishes.
Drainage pipes are used for reclamation work in agriculture, for draining peat bogs, as well as for draining the area under buildings and structures. They are made from brick clays that do not contain pebbles. Their porosity can reach 20%. Drainage pipes are most often made smooth, unglazed, without sockets for end-to-end installation. Sometimes they produce glazed pipes with water holes and flanges. These pipes are more durable and less soak in wet soils.
Majolica is close in properties and quality to terracotta, but unlike the latter, it is covered with glaze. Glaze gives the product moisture resistance, protects from contamination, improves appearance, increases strength. For coarse ceramic products, which include majolica, salt glaze is affordable and cheap. To apply it to the surface of the product, rock salt (NaCl) and water vapor are introduced into the furnace of a red-hot furnace (1040 ... 1180 ° C). During this operation, in an oxidizing atmosphere, the color of the product will be brown-yellow, and in a reducing atmosphere, it will be gray. Products covered with salt glaze have an uneven surface, which reduces the quality of products. During salt glazing, sodium chloride hydrolysis occurs and good glazes have a composition from Na2O 0.5Al2O3 2.8SiO2 to Na2O Al2O3 5.5SiO2.
A full-fledged glaze is a transparent, colorless or colored vitreous coating that spreads well when applied to a shard. Glaze provides the product with a smooth surface and a decorative effect. The adhesion strength of the glaze to the shard is promoted by calcium oxide CaO. It leads to the formation of an intermediate layer that perceives and dampens the stresses that arise between the glaze and the shard during rapid temperature changes due to different thermal expansion coefficients. Therefore, in majolica masses for the production of stove tiles (for which frequent temperature changes are inevitable), the CaO content reaches 37 ... 38%.
Glazes can be thought of as undefined chemical compounds of silica with other oxides. The composition of the most common glazes can be expressed by the ratio of the main components: 1(M2O + M?O): (0.5 ... 1.4) Al2O3: (5 ... - ions of alkaline earth metals, as well as Pb (II), Fe (II), Low limits of Al2O3 and SiO2 are typical for faience glazes, and high limits for porcelain glazes. As a rule, the glaze is applied to an already fired porcelain or faience product, after which an additional firing is carried out. During this firing, the glaze reacts with the sherd to form an intermediate layer that ensures their conjugation.
There are suggestions that the word "majolica" comes from the island of Mallorca in the Mediterranean Sea - the main center for the export of Spanish-Moorish ceramics to Italy. Majolica was widely used already in the 2nd...1st millennium BC. in Assyro-Babylonia, then in Central Asia, later in Spain and Italy. In the X ... XII centuries. in Kievan Rus, majolica was used for wall cladding, flooring, framing window and door openings in church and palace buildings. Nowadays, it is widely used for interior decoration of public and industrial buildings. Over time, a network of hairline cracks appears on the surface of the majolica, which indicates a large difference in the coefficients of thermal expansion of the glaze and the shard. Terracotta and majolica products often have a complex configuration. To give it, the products are cast in plaster molds or stamped on presses in metal molds.
Before the invention of porcelain, faience was the most valuable ceramic material. It differs from porcelain in a much higher content of clay (up to 85%) and is characterized by a much higher porosity, water absorption (up to 20%), and also lower mechanical strength compared to porcelain. The faience firing temperature is much lower (up to 950°C) than the porcelain firing temperature. Depending on the quality of the clay, the color of faience varies from white to cream. Due to the high porosity, earthenware is always glazed. Therefore, some types of majolica are approaching faience. Glaze can be transparent, colored or muffled. By introducing chamotte, an aluminosilicate material containing 30...45% aluminum oxide Al2O3 and 54...70% silicon dioxide SiO2, into the composition of the faience mass, fireclay faience is obtained, which has increased heat resistance and impact resistance. Bathtubs, sinks and other sanitary ware are made from such faience.
The name "faience" comes from the city of Faenza (Northern Italy), in the vicinity of which in the XIV ... XV centuries. ceramic handicraft was widely developed. In the third quarter of the 16th century, due to admiration for Chinese porcelain, which was imported to Italy through Venice, the production of white majolica was established and intensively developed in Faenza. However, it must be borne in mind that at that time in Europe, majolica products were called faience.
Faience, produced in Europe, was characterized by opacity. Persian faience, the production of which went through a long period of growth and prosperity (from the 10th to the 17th centuries AD), had a well-translucent shard. It was prepared from a mass rich in quartz, with small additions of clay glazed after firing. All ancient faience products have a network of small cracks on the glaze. (Specialists call the network of these cracks - zek. On porcelain glazes, zek is much less common.) For collectors and connoisseurs of ceramics, the network of cracks is a sign of the age of the product. The reason for the rupture of the glaze and the formation of cracks is the tendency of faience to reversible absorption of moisture and swelling, as a result of which the volume of the shard increases within 0.016 ... 0.086%.
Porcelain is the most noble ceramic. It is a material consisting of kaolin, clay, quartz and feldspar. Its characteristic features are: white color, lack of porosity, high strength, thermal and chemical resistance. For household porcelain translucency is valued.
There are two main types of porcelain.
1. Hard - with small additions of flux (feldspar) and therefore fired at a relatively high temperature (1380 ... 1460 ° C). The mass of classic hard porcelain consists of 25% quartz, 25% feldspar and 50% kaolin and clay. 2. Soft - with a high content of fluxes, fired at a temperature of 1200 ... 1280 ° C. In addition to feldspar, marble, dolomite, magnesite, burnt bone or phosphorite are used as fluxes. With an increase in the content of fluxes, the amount of the vitreous phase increases and, therefore, the translucency of porcelain improves, but strength and heat resistance decrease. Clay imparts plasticity to the porcelain mass (necessary for molding products), but reduces the whiteness of porcelain. Freshly precipitated barium sulfate BaSO4 is used as a reference for assessing the whiteness of porcelain. Whiteness is characterized by the intensity of light scattering, which is recorded by a photometer.
Due to its excellent decorative properties, porcelain attracted the attention of Europeans from the beginning of the 16th century, when it was first brought to Europe by Portuguese merchants from China, the birthplace of porcelain. In China, he was already known in 220 BC. In relatively large quantities, Chinese porcelain began to be imported into Europe in the middle of the 16th century. Naturally, in different European countries there were attempts to discover the secret of porcelain production. The recipe for European porcelain was developed in 1703 by the German physicist Ehrenfried Tschirngauz, who in 1707 attracted Bettger to his work. In 1708, Chirnhaus suddenly dies and Bettger pretends to be the inventor of the composition and technology of porcelain production. In 1715, he founded the famous Meissen porcelain factory to this day.
In Russia, the composition of porcelain was developed by D.I. Vinogradov in 1746 and its production was established at the imperial factory near St. Petersburg (now the porcelain factory named after M.V. Lomonosov).
Nature created favorable conditions for the invention of porcelain in China. The fact is that in the province of Jian-si near the city of Jin-te-zhen there are inexhaustible reserves of a unique mineral - "porcelain stone", the favorable composition of which greatly simplifies the composition of the porcelain mass. Of course, every craft has its own secrets and nuances. For example, to improve the molding properties of raw materials, the porcelain mass used to manufacture the famous Chinese “eggshell” porcelain, i.e. products with very thin walls, kept closed in the ground for 100 years!
Usually, two firing of porcelain products is carried out: the first for “scrap”, the second for “watered”. The first “scrap” firing aims to sinter the product and provide it with a certain porosity and strength sufficient for glazing with an aqueous suspension. The second firing is necessary for melting the glaze on the surface of the product and for its interaction with the material of the shard.
The painting of porcelain products can be underglaze and overglaze. Underglaze paints must be able to withstand the temperature of the poured glaze firing. Therefore, their set is limited. They should not decompose and dissolve in the glaze during firing. Currently, only metal oxides are used as ceramic paints. Cobalt oxide gives a blue color, nickel - brown, copper - green or blue-green, chromium - green, manganese - brown or purple, iron - yellow or red, uranium - yellow.
Overglaze paints are also metal oxides. They are fixed on the surface by fusion with glaze during the third - "decorative" firing, carried out at relatively low temperatures (770...850°C). Therefore, the palette of these paints is much wider than underglaze, but they are erased from the shard with long use.
For better fusion of overglaze paints with glaze, they are pre-mixed with fluxes (fusible glasses containing oxides of lead, boron and silicon), which give the paints additional shine. The composition and nature of the flux is reflected in the shade of paints. The composition of overglaze dyes includes Fe2O3 Al2O3 - yellow-red, Co2O3 Mn3O4 Cr2O3 - black, 0.25Fe2O3 ZnO - light brown, Fe2O3 Cr2O3 - brown, CoO Al2O3 - blue, Cr2O3 - green, etc. .
Porcelain products are very diverse in their chemical composition, properties and purpose. Here are some of the most famous types of porcelain and their characteristic features.
Biscuit porcelain - matte, without glaze. There is an opinion that it is called biscuit because of the double firing. The prefixes "bis" and "bi" in many languages mean two. In the production of porcelain, the firing is first carried out, which is called waste firing, and then the firing during glazing follows. Biscuit porcelain is also fired twice, but the second time without glaze. At present, the technology for the production of biscuit porcelain may not include a second firing.
Bone porcelain is soft porcelain, an indispensable part of which is the ash of the bones of cattle, consisting mainly of calcium phosphate. Nowadays, it is sometimes replaced by natural calcium phosphates. Products made of bone china are characterized by high whiteness, translucence and decorative effect. Experts believe that bone china began to be produced by J. Spod in 1759 in the vicinity of Stoke-on-Tret (England). In our country, high-quality bone china products are produced by the Porcelain Factory. M.V. Lomonosov in St. Petersburg.
Fritted porcelain is a well translucent soft porcelain produced in France since 1738. It contains 30...50% kaolin, 25...35% quartz, 25...35% alkali-rich glass frit. Frits are composite additives to the porcelain mass, which ensure the formation of a vitreous phase, and, consequently, determine the translucency of porcelain. The composition of frits includes: sand, soda, saltpeter, gypsum, table salt and crushed lead glass.
If in primitive times ceramics had a purely utilitarian meaning, then over time they become the object of artistic creativity. Already in the 7th century. BC. in ancient Greece, ceramic products reached a high artistic level. The outer surface of ancient Greek ceramics before firing was covered with a thin layer of engobe - white or colored clay, applied to fill in irregularities and give the product a high-quality appearance and the desired color. Decorations on the product were written with a chandelier, i.e. alumina paint, which, as a result of firing, took on a brilliant black color. According to the style of painting, different periods of ceramics production were distinguished. By the end of the VI century. BC. a change takes place in the decoration of ceramic products - the outer surface of the product is completely covered with black paint. Only the contours of the figures were left unpainted, and the details of the drawing were then drawn with a thin brush.
During the period of classical ancient Greek art (V...IV centuries BC), red-figure vases were made. Vessels covered with a layer of white engobe and decorated with black and red painting belong to the same period. Such products were produced mainly by the craftsmen of Attica, starting from the middle of the 5th century BC. BC.
In the IV century. BC. figurines appear mainly of female figures. In addition to Greece itself, these figurines were made in the Greek colonies of Italy, Asia Minor and on the island of Rhodes. At the same time, in connection with the beginning of the economic weakening of the cities of the Greek metropolis, the centers for the artistic development of ceramic production moved to the Greek colonies, including the Northern Black Sea region, in particular, to Panticopei in the Crimea (on the site of modern Kerch). Here in the VIII ... IV centuries. BC. produced household ceramic products, distinguished by highly artistic painting in black tone on a red shard or red tone on a black background. In addition, the development of the red-figure style continued here, and painted reliefs appeared on the smooth surface of the vessels. The method of production of these products along the coast of Taurida, as well as in Greece itself, was forgotten and was not resumed later.
In the III century. BC. in the decorations of ancient Greek ceramics, instead of scenes with human figures, stylized patterns began to appear on a black background. In addition, the range of colors (white, yellow, red) has expanded. During this period, signs of Roman art appear in ancient Greek ceramics in connection with the strengthening of the Roman Empire and its expansion. In the 1st century BC. red ceramics appeared with an engobe and a shiny outer surface. On this pottery, signs of the potter's brand began to be affixed. Later, such unglazed fine-ceramic wares with a waterproof crock of red or red-orange color, but also with relief decoration, were widely produced in the Roman Empire. This pottery was widely known and was called terra sigillata. The word sigillata is derived from the Italian seal, to print. There are two versions of this name for ceramics. According to one, it was named in connection with the beginning of the marking of products by the master, and according to the other, in connection with the relief decoration, which was applied by imprint. It is believed that terra sigillata products were especially widely produced in the Roman Empire in the period from 150 BC. to 200 AD The production of these, as well as ancient Greek pottery, was not resumed later.
With the fall of the Roman Empire, the prerequisites for the further development of artistic ceramics gradually disappeared. This situation lasted for several centuries, capturing the entire period of the Middle Ages. When a new upsurge of intellectual and creative forces gradually began to take shape, other types of craft were developed first of all. The art of ceramics was revived in Europe only in the Romanesque era (the end of the 10th and the turn of the 12th-13th centuries). However, at first this affected not so much everyday as architectural and building ceramics, which were used to decorate castles, monasteries, and churches.
Only in the 15th century, i.e. At the beginning of the Renaissance, ceramic production gained a wide scope and began to move closer to artistic creativity. Having started in the countries of Southern Europe - in Italy, France, Spain, highly artistic ceramic production then begins to develop in Germany, Holland, England and other countries. A description of the characteristic features of ceramic products from different countries and different centers of the same country in this book is not possible. However, one of the types of household ceramics - stoneware (stone goods) deserves attention.
Stoneware (stone goods)
It began to be produced in Germany in the 16th century. This pottery is characterized by an extremely dense white or painted sherd. The crock does not shine through even in thin layers and is characterized by water absorption not exceeding 7%. The raw material for stoneware is clay mixed with feldspar, quartz, fireclay and other substances. Roasting was carried out at a temperature of 1200...1280°C. Before the invention of porcelain, stoneware was Germany's greatest contribution to the world's development of ceramics. However, in the XVIII century. The stoneware of the English firm of J. Wedgwood gained worldwide fame. Its distinctive feature is the bas-relief decoration of the surface of vases, sides of plates and other small figures and arabesques (stylized leaves, flowers) of the same color against the general background of an item of a different color, for example, a white bas-relief on a green and blue background.
Antique dealers and collectors determine the origin of porcelain, faience and other artistic ceramic products using factory marks (brands) on the products, which were most often made with refractory paints or mechanically pressed into the raw material. Sometimes, instead of the factory mark, a monogram of a painter or a sculptor was placed. If the product is not marked, then it is necessary to determine it by the method of execution, the shape, the nature of the shard, the color of the glaze and the style of decor. Porcelain and earthenware labels are collected in special reference books and catalogs.
MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION
FEDERAL STATE BUDGET EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION OF HIGHER PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION
"SAINT PETERSBURG STATE UNIVERSITY
TECHNOLOGY AND DESIGN»
Department of History and Theory of Arts
TEST
in the discipline "History of Ceramics" on the topic:
"Ceramics. Main types of ceramics»
Performed:
Student of group 1-DZ-41
Direction of training 073900. 62
"Theory and History of Art"
Polityko Tatyana Andreevna
St. Petersburg - 2013
1. Introduction
Infertile land, when wet, turns into a homogeneous liquid composition, and after drying it becomes dust - it would seem, a completely useless and unnecessary material. But, fortunately, thousands of years ago, a person learned the unique properties of, perhaps, the most common terrestrial rock - clay.
The oldest item made of baked clay dates back to 29-25 millennia BC. This is the Westonic Venus<#"justify">-study the theory on the topic “Ceramics. Main types of ceramics”;
-analyze the received information;
To conclude.
The topic I have chosen has been and will be relevant as long as ceramics, its creators, researchers and connoisseurs exist.
2. Ceramics
2.1 Etymology
The word "ceramic" originates in Greece: the ancient Greek words "keramos", which means "clay", as well as "keramike" - pottery, combine to give us this term. Its general meaning implies any clay product subjected to heat treatment, most often firing.
2.2 Appearance
Since time immemorial, people have been sculpting objects necessary for everyday life from clay, especially dishes. Only bad luck: dishes made of unbaked clay are very fragile and, moreover, are afraid of moisture. In such dishes it was possible to store only dry products. Raking up the ashes of an extinct fire, the ancient man noticed more than once that the clay soil in the place where the fire burned became hard, like a stone and was not washed away by rains. Perhaps it was this observation that prompted a person to burn dishes in a fire.
Be that as it may, but clay burned in a fire was the first artificial material in the history of mankind, which later became known as ceramics.
Like other similar discoveries, ceramics is not the invention of any one people - it was mastered independently of each other in different parts of the earth, but this does not exclude further interaction.
The forms of dishes developed in accordance with the needs of everyday life and the artistic traditions of the peoples. So, for example, the transition to a sedentary lifestyle required vessels with a flat bottom, adapted to the flat hearth of the stove and table. At different times, each nation had its own favorite forms of vessels, the location and nature of ornaments, methods of surface treatment, which was left with the natural texture and color of clay or polished, changed color by restorative firing, painted, covered with engobe<#"justify">2.3 Basic Tools
In the arsenal of a modern potter there are quite a lot of different devices. (ill. No. 5)
One of the main tools are stacks, which are sometimes called "long fingers". Stacks are designed for the smallest work when finishing the internal and external surfaces of ceramic products.
The surface is processed with wooden or bone knives and scrapers. Almost all craftsmen use ordinary river pebbles in their work, with the help of which the walls of the vessels are not only leveled, but also polished. To decorate ceramics, metal and wooden sticks, brushes, pipettes, airbrushes, and other special devices are used.
In addition to all of the above, the most necessary and common are templates, clubs, mallets, string, spoons, rolling pins, various knives (both ordinary and special pottery), compasses and calipers, etc.
It should be noted that until now most of the tools for processing and decorating vessels are made by the master himself. Including the largest, most difficult to create: a potter's wheel and a forge.
2.3.1 Potter's wheel
Talking about ceramics, it is impossible to ignore one of its most important tools - the potter's wheel. This simple device was invented about 7 thousand years ago, since then it has not changed much.
The first hand circles appeared in ancient Mesopotamia in the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates among the Sumerians in the 4th millennium BC. Around the same time, it began to be used in Iran and India. On European lands, he became known rather late, only around 500 BC.
Its very first and simplest forms were round wooden discs on a vertical rod that rotated in a hollowed-out block. They were intended to support the clay during molding and were rotated by hand. This allowed the potters to dramatically increase labor productivity, significantly improve the quality and increase the variety of products.
The prototype of the first pottery wheels was probably flat coasters in the form of a plant leaf, a piece of mat, a stone, etc., on which the products turned during molding and which did not allow wet clay to stick to the ground. Gradually, the design of the potter's wheel improved. Already in the III millennium BC. a simple turning circle appeared, driven by hands. Later, mechanical ones appeared - with a “foot” design, and then technical progress introduced us to electric potter's wheels - such a device does not require physical effort, but requires a fairly high level of skill, as it has a high rotation speed.
2.3.2 potter's forge
After the vessels were removed from the circle, they were fired. Before the advent of this device, heat treatment was carried out using a fire method, or in a furnace. But this had its drawbacks. And only firing in a special pottery furnace, which allows reaching a high temperature, gave the entire clay dough complete calcination. Hearth-fired vessels are lighter in weight than those fired in a kiln, ring when tapped, and have a solid color of well-calcined clay when broken.
Pottery forge - a kiln for firing ceramic products. Roasting is carried out with hot gases obtained during the combustion of fuel; for complete firing, a uniform temperature is needed, not lower than 700-900 ° C, which is impossible on a fire and in a home oven. Horn appeared in the countries of the Ancient East (Mesopotamia, Egypt) around the third millennium BC.
2.4 Clay processing, product creation process
“I was on a digger, I was on a topan, I was on a circle, I was on a fire, I was on a scald ...” - the hero of this riddle is an ordinary clay pot. Using his example, one can trace the entire path that clay goes through before becoming a ceramic product.
2.4.1 Career work ("on the dig")
Quarry activities include mining, transportation and storage of an intermediate supply of clay. Keeping the soaked clay, freezing it out for a year in the open air destroys the natural structure of the clay, which increases the plasticity and molding properties of the ceramic mass.
2.4.2 Mechanical processing ("on toptan")
Mechanical processing of clay is carried out manually or with the help of clay processing machines in order to exclude various excesses (usually pebbles) from the mass and obtain the necessary molding properties.
2.4.3 Molding ("on a circle")
There are the following main methods of molding: casting method, plastic method - free molding, molding on a potter's wheel, manual impression in a mold, molding on a rotating plaster mold using a template or roller, semi-dry and dry methods. They are distinguished by the amount of water they contain.
2.4.4 Drying
Drying is the process of removing moisture from materials by evaporation. Drying is necessary to give the raw material mechanical strength and prepare it for firing. The most common are convective and radiation drying methods.
2.4.5 Roasting ("on fire")
Firing completes the production of ceramic products. During the firing process, their structure is formed, which determines the technical properties of the product. Often, it is firing that creates the unpredictability of the result: during firing, paints change not only their texture, strength, but also color.
Previously, in order for the vessel not to absorb moisture, it had to go to the “scald”, for which it was dipped hot into kvass thick or liquid flour mash. Gradually, scalding began to be used less and less. In order to protect the ceramic product from the penetration of moisture and exposure to harmful substances, potters began to increasingly cover them with the thinnest layer of glass - the so-called glaze, or glaze. .
3. Types of ceramics
The main technological types of ceramics are terracotta<#"justify">3.1 Terracotta
Terracotta is a type of rough ceramic. It has been known since the Neolithic era, i.e. more than 5 thousand years BC Terracotta is produced by the industry in the form of unglazed monochromatic ceramic products with a porous shard of red, brown or cream colors. The color shade of terracotta largely depends on the firing conditions. Its water absorption is from 8 to 10%. Terracotta is made from special, fairly widespread varieties of clay, which, after firing, acquires a characteristic texture: from coarse-grained to fine, with continuous or partial polishing, and color<#"justify">3.2 Majolica
Majolica is a kind of fine ceramic products made from ordinary brown clay, which has been known since the Neolithic era. In a break, a burnt shard of majolica of natural "clay" color from light brown to reddish hue. Water absorption of majolica with white shard - 12%, with color - 16%. For majolica, fusible clays are used in their pure form or with additives. In the majolica technique, they are created as decorative panels.<#"justify">3.3 Faience
Faience - fine-ceramic products with a porous (liquid-permeable) skull, which, when broken, has a rough, earthy appearance and is always covered with glaze, or glaze. It is capable of absorbing up to 9-12% of water. For the manufacture of faience, refractory white-burning clays (kaolin) with the addition of chalk, quartz sand, etc. are used. Unlike porcelain, it has an opaque porous body, due to which it looks heavier (total porosity 26-30%). Faience is represented mainly by tableware, moreover, about 70% of the products are plates. It is also used to create artistic and decorative products, mostly flower vases, decorative wall plates and souvenirs. Due to its relatively high hardness, opaque is considered the highest grade of earthenware.
Faience got its name from the name of the Italian city of Faenza ("Faenza"), famous for the production of such products. It is noteworthy that in France<#"justify">3.4 Porcelain
Porcelain is the noblest and most perfect form of ceramics. How does majolica and faience relate to fine ceramic products. From faience, so similar at first glance, it differs in a number of special properties, for example, in the fact that its mass is absolutely white not only on the surface, but also in a break. Its crock is dense and transparent in the thinnest places. Water absorption in porcelain is very small - up to 0.2%. This is a non-porous ceramic. It consists of a mixture of different types of clay (mostly high-quality kaolin) with sand, feldspar, etc. and translucent glaze, which covered the shard. Glaze<#"justify">Depending on the composition of the porcelain mass and glaze, hard and soft porcelain are distinguished. An intermediate view is represented by the so-called bone china. If the twice-fired porcelain mass is left without glaze, then a special type of porcelain is formed - biscuit. Fritted porcelain - well translucent soft porcelain. French, English, European, Oriental, semi-porcelain - the head is spinning from the number of varieties of porcelain. But, in spite of everything, Chinese porcelain is considered the highest quality and most valuable in society.
ceramics pottery faience porcelain
Conclusion
Having studied a large amount of material about the history and types of ceramics, I made the following conclusions:
.In its best examples, ceramics reflects the high achievements of the art of all times and peoples;
.The prevalence of ceramics and the originality of its types among different peoples in different eras, the presence of ornaments, brands, and often inscriptions on products make it an important historical source;
.A huge number of objects that surround us in everyday life are ceramic products. Clay and ceramics are used in medical, chemical, construction, architectural, high-tech purposes.
.The art of ceramics is one of the most ancient, the experience of many millennia has been accumulated here. The uniqueness of raw materials, the variety of methods of molding and decorating, the multi-stage ceramic technology make it a rather difficult subject to study.
.Undoubtedly, it is necessary to consolidate theoretical knowledge on this topic in practice. Firstly, when a novice master does the work on his own at least once, the technique will not only be in his head, but also in his hands. In addition, the development of tactile sensations in children, fantasy and perseverance in adults will be a big plus. Secondly, the process of creating ceramic products, regardless of their belonging to any kind, is a wonderful relaxing and inspiring medicine.
.Ceramics is an interesting, necessary and really elegant form of art, worthy of study and admiration.
Sources
1.G.Ya. Fedotov "Big Encyclopedia of Crafts" - M .: "Eksmo", 2008. - 608s.
.O.E. Bazilevich "Production of pottery" - 2nd ed. correct and additional - M.: State publishing house of the local industry of the RSFSR, 1994. - 49p.
.W.D. Kingeri "Introduction to Ceramics" - 2nd ed. - M.: Publishing house of literature on construction, 1967. - 503 p.
4.S. Marilyn “Ceramics. Encyclopedia" - M.: "Art-populist", 2012. -192p.
5.www.ceramics-pottery.ru
6.www.kefa.ru<#"justify">List of illustrations
1.Westonian Venus. Vestonitz, between 29,000 and 25,000 years. BC.
.Figurines from Tanagra. Tanagra, Greece, ca. 300 BC
.Pythosis. Ancient Greece, 7th c. BC.
.Jug, black polished ceramics. Russia, 19th century
.Some pottery auxiliary tools
Potter's wheel
potter's forge
.Terracotta Army of Emperor Qin Shi Huang fragment. China, 210 - 209 BC e.
.Madonna and Child. Luca della Robbia. Florence, 1455
.Naucratic cup from Olbia. 6c. BC e.
11. Porcelain vase<#"justify">.
Album of illustrations
1.Vestonitskaya Venus. Vestonice, Moravia, between 29,000 and 25,000 BC BC.
2. Figurines from Tanagra. Tanagra, Greece, ca. 300 BC From left to right: a girl with a tambourine, a girl with a flower garland, a young man sitting on a bench.
3. Pythosis. Ancient Greece, 7th c. BC.
4. Pitcher, black polished ceramics. Russia, 19th century
Some auxiliary tools
6. Potter's wheel
7. Pottery forge
Terracotta. Terracotta Army of Emperor Qin Shi Huang fragment. China, 210-209 BC e.
10. Faience Naucratic cup from Olbia. 6th century BC e.
11. Porcelain Porcelain vase
Kirill Sysoev
Calloused hands do not know boredom!
Content
For making plates, bowls, salad bowls, cups, mugs, etc. Today, different materials are used, which differ from each other in cost and quality characteristics. A popular option is ceramic dishes of foreign and Russian production, the main for which is clay raw materials. Ceramic dishes have served people for over a thousand years. Despite a range of modern materials, ceramics are still popular, and dishes cooked in earthenware are distinguished by an exquisite and unique taste.
What is ceramic tableware
Under such dishes are meant products made of ceramics, which consists of a mixture of clay with mineral additives. At the same time, it is not correct to divide utensils into clay and ceramic utensils on the basis that the first is not covered with glaze, and the second is covered. All kitchen utensils, for the production of which clay was used, are commonly called ceramic, i.e. this includes faience and porcelain dishes.
What are they made of
Dishes made of Russian-made or foreign ceramics are made by sintering clay or clay mixtures. Despite the large assortment of products, a mixture of clay with kaolin and with the addition of feldspar and quartz is used for the production of ceramics. Plaster molds are used to give the desired look to the resulting mixture. Further, air is removed from the blanks, because. this is necessary to improve the plastic properties and overall quality of ceramic products.
The main stage of production involves sintering at a significant temperature regime with subsequent processing, i.e. firing, surface decoration. Depending on the type of final product, heat treatment is carried out at a high temperature - in the range of 900 to 1250°C. As a result, the pliable clay mixture becomes hard, retaining the given shape, refractory and acquires chemical resistance. To avoid cracks that appear due to humidity and a sharp temperature drop, the surface is glazed on the outside.
Advantages and disadvantages
Having learned about what ceramic dishes are made of, and having familiarized yourself with the manufacturing technology of such products, pay attention to the pros and cons that have. Such heat-resistant kitchen utensils have the following advantages:
- the ability to adjust the humidity, temperature of the prepared dish, because the porous structure of ceramics contributes to the absorption of moisture with its subsequent return;
- over time, scale does not form in products;
- suitable for storing food for a long time;
- impeccable taste of dishes, because food cooked in ceramic utensils has a special aroma, rich taste - as if it was languishing in an oven.
- it is environmentally safe - this is due to the absence of heavy metals in the composition and the release of toxic substances under the influence of high temperatures.
You can order suitable ceramic products in specialized online stores with delivery by mail. Before you buy ceramic dishes in Moscow, St. Petersburg or another city, familiarize yourself with its shortcomings. Like utensils made of any other material, it is not without them. If you take into account the cons, then it is possible to extend the operational life of the purchase made. Negative qualities include:
- the destructive effect of moisture, which is a consequence of the porosity of the material;
- increased fragility;
- absorption of fat and its difficult laundering;
- absorption, long-term preservation of the smell of cooked food - it is better to have separate ceramic utensils for each dish.
Types of ceramic dishes
Jugs and clay pots for baking, pans, mugs, tea cups and other ceramic products are divided into two main groups: for cooking and for serving. Ceramic utensils are widely used not only at home, but also in many catering establishments, for example, when it is required to add some ethnic zest to the interior. In addition, such products are divided into glazed and unglazed. New technologies make it possible to produce ceramics of various types, depending on which the dishes can be divided into the following types:
- Terracotta crockery. For its manufacture, red clay is used, it is rarely covered with a layer of glaze, after firing it acquires a very different texture: coarse-grained or fine, with continuous or partial polishing. Color varies from black, brown and red to light beige. Once terracotta is characterized by too low moisture resistance, but new technologies have corrected this shortcoming.
- Faience products. Tea sets, coffee sets and other products in this category are made of white clay, but with less thermal resistance and strength, more porosity and wall thickness. All this leads to a more noticeable absorption of odors and moisture compared to the porcelain counterpart. A light blow on a faience surface causes a low, dull and quickly disappearing sound - this is due to the relatively low firing temperature in the range of 900-1050 ° C.
- Porcelain. Porcelain products are made on the basis of white clay. It has lightness, exquisite aesthetics, high strength and good heat and acid resistance. Lightly striking the porcelain ceramic coating results in a sustained, clear, high-pitched sound. Porcelain containers keep warm and cool, acting as a kind of thermos. Compared to faience counterparts, they have greater mechanical stability.
Russian-made ceramic dishes
If you visit a pottery store, you can find a lot of domestic products: ceramic frying pans, teapots, cups, etc. As for manufacturing, it is not pottery workshops that are engaged in this to a greater extent, but entire factories with great productive capacity. A good purchase would be a glass "Verona" made of handmade ceramics. The product will keep cooled drinks cold and tea hot for a long time:
- model name: Verona 1764924;
- price: 25 rubles / piece;
- characteristics: dimensions - 8x8.5x8.5 cm, weight - 240 g, multi-colored, volume - 250 ml, in a box - 12 pieces;
- pluses: it is cheap, interesting pattern;
- cons: no.
Check out another Russian-made product. This is a tea saucer made of Dulevo porcelain:
- model name: Tulip 1489796;
- price: 26 rubles / piece;
- characteristics: dimensions - 15x15x2 cm, weight - 90 g, package - 40 pieces, material - porcelain;
- pluses: acceptable cost;
- cons: lack of drawings.
The Dream set, consisting of two items, fully meets Russian quality standards. Products have an interesting blue-blue hue:
- model name: Dream 894465;
- price: 104 rubles;
- characteristics: consists of a mug of 0.2 l and a salad bowl of 0.6 l, total weight - 510 g, colors - blue, light blue;
- pluses: spectacular shade;
- cons: no.
Polish ceramics
Ceramic dishes are highly valued, because they are heat-intensive, easy to care for, and their heating is carried out evenly. It can even be used in the oven, just heat it up gradually to avoid possible problems. Ceramic products of Polish manufacturers have gained some popularity in the country, which can sometimes be bought at a good discount during sales and promotions. Alternatively, you can order a fruit dish from Boleslawiec (Poland):
- model name: dish Boleslawiec B43;
- price: 4400 rubles;
- characteristics: height - 7 cm, length - 34.5 cm, width - 22.5 cm, ornament - peacock feather;
- pluses: quality, aesthetic appearance;
- cons: it's expensive.
Boleslawiec is a manufacturer of unique design and quality Polish tableware, which is very popular not only in Poland, but also in Russia. Another great creation that can even be used as a present:
- model name: flat dish Boleslawiec T-136;
- price: 1900 rubles;
- characteristics: height - 4 cm, diameter - 29 cm, ornament - boat;
- pluses: beauty, practicality, good size;
- cons: a little pricey.
If you are interested in a beautiful teapot made in Poland, then take a look at the following products. The teapot has a convenient lockable lid. The heat in it due to ceramics lasts for a long time, so the tea turns out tasty and fragrant:
- model name: kettle Boleslawiec 264;
- price: 2300 rubles;
- characteristics: volume - 0.9 l, height - 14 cm, ornament - trees;
- pluses: optimal volume, aesthetics, originality;
- cons: high cost.
For kitchen
A good purchase would be a set of cookware with a non-stick ceramic coating (internal) ECO-CERA. The set consists of 3 items, the lid of the pan is made of heat-resistant glass. Handles are fastened with rivets:
- model name: VS-2216 Vitesse;
- price: 3623 rubles;
- characteristics: pan - 2.8 l, 20 cm, frying pan diameter - 24 and 20 cm, aluminum body, wall thickness - 2.5 mm, weight - 2.117 kg, colors - red, blue;
- pluses: good quality, aesthetic appearance;
- cons: a little expensive.
Barton Steel's 6813BS is another ceramic-coated utensil set that's great for the kitchen. Suitable for all types of hob, including induction. The lids are made of glass, have a steam vent and metal handles:
- model name: 6813BS Barton Steel;
- price: 5290 rubles;
- characteristics: 3 pots - 2.5 / 4.5 / 7 l, 20/24/28 cm, frying pan - 3 l, 28 cm, there is a silicone spatula, 2 potholders, 2 hot pads;
- pluses: a rich set at an affordable cost, excellent quality;
- cons: no.
A set of dishes for the kitchen "Dalmatians" includes 3 items. It is inexpensive, production - Dobrush Porcelain Factory (Belarus):
- model name: Dalmatians 1035476;
- price: 158 rubles;
- characteristics: mug - 200 ml, salad bowl - 360 ml, plate diameter - 17 cm, material - porcelain, total weight - 700 g;
- pluses: the presence of a picture, low cost;
- cons: no.
color
Ceramic kitchen utensils painted in different colors will delight every guest in your home. With its help, the kitchen can be given some originality and showiness. The main thing is to make sure that the product is really of high quality, durable and made of environmentally friendly material. An interesting purchase would be a yellow-blue teapot from Cesiro:
- model name: Cesiro 2477_06_120_428;
- price: 560 rubles;
- characteristics: colors - yellow, blue, capacity - 600 ml, height - 130 mm, country of origin - Romania;
- pluses: original look, good workmanship;
- cons: the coloring may seem unusual.
Check out this bright orange pot from Bekker. Meat cooked in ceramic vessels acquires a special softness, and vegetables remain juicy. Outside, the product is ribbed, suitable for dishwasher, oven and microwave:
- model name: Bekker BK-7097;
- price: 1090 rubles;
- characteristics: color - orange, volume - 2.1 l, dimensions - 30.5x20.5x115 cm, shape - oval, material - heat-resistant ceramics;
- pluses: optimal volume, thick walls;
- cons: not very comfortable shape.
If you are looking for a plate, then take a look at the substitution variant, painted in blue-blue. There is no picture for this:
- model name: Cesiro 1469361;
- price: 163 rubles;
- characteristics: colors - blue, light blue, volume - 230 ml, diameter - 23 cm, shape - round, weight - 470 g, country of origin - Romania;
- pluses: affordable cost, an interesting combination of colors;
- cons: no.
Dining room
Pay attention to the BK-7033 dinner service from Bekker, all items of which are made of high-quality porcelain. The ware conforms to all available world standards in the field of ecology and safety. The set includes a large salad bowl, gravy boat, classic-shaped plates and some other items. The kit is relatively inexpensive, but of high quality - ideal for daily use:
- model name: Bekker BK-7024;
- price: 2550 rubles;
- characteristics: main color - white, 6 dinner, 6 soup and 6 dessert plates, gravy boat, oval dish, salad bowl, gravy saucer, material - porcelain;
- pluses: a rich set, acceptable cost,
- cons: no.
High quality porcelain dinner service BK-7038 from BK-7038 is a product decorated with a beautiful floral ornament. The surface of each item is covered with sparkling lead-free glaze. Such a service will especially appeal to lovers of the classics and those who prefer sophistication and sophistication:
- model name: Bekker BK-7038;
- price: 3750 rubles;
- characteristics: diameter of soup plates (6 pcs.) - 19 cm, size of dinner plates (6 pcs.) - 25.5x21 cm, dessert (6 pcs.) - 20.5x16.5 cm, saucers (6 pcs.) - 15 ,5x12 cm, volume of cups (6 pcs.) - 250 ml, material - porcelain;
- pluses: practicality, a large number of items;
- cons: it is more expensive than analogues.
Another good set of ceramic tableware is the Tulips service. All items are glazed and decorated with a beautiful floral pattern:
- model name: Dolyana Tulips;
- price: 3232 rubles;
- characteristics: the size of soup plates (4 pcs.) - 22x22x4 cm, the size of lunch (4 pcs.) - 23x23x2.5 cm, dessert (4 pcs.) - 19x19x1.5 cm, saucers (4 pcs.) - 15x15x1.5 cm , volume of mugs (4 pcs.) - 180 ml, diameter - 7.8 cm, height - 7 cm, material - ceramics;
- pluses: aesthetics, rich set;
- cons: no.
How to choose ceramic dishes
Having decided to purchase a set of ceramic dishes, take his choice with all seriousness. In this case, it is better to make a choice in favor of the whole set, because. all the utensils included in it are designed in the same style. Buying dishes separately, as a result, in the kitchen you will form a kind of mess in aesthetic terms. Pay attention to the design, the presence of a pattern, color. Be sure to check the surface of each product so that there are no chips or other defects on it.
Decide on the type of ceramics. The most durable option is faience ceramic utensils, because. this material has great mechanical resistance, acid and heat resistance. Faience is less durable, but cheaper - in general, dishes from it are not afraid of temperature changes. There is also terracotta, which cannot be put on an open fire, and after washing it should be wiped thoroughly.