Sales policy of the company, its elements. Sales policy in marketing Sales policy structure

Sales policy is a system of decisions that is made by the seller in order to implement the selected strategies and obtain the greatest effect on the sale of goods.

The sales policy of a production enterprise is a set of principles and approaches to the formation and functioning of a sales system and a variety of organizational forms and methods of sales. The sales system (sales system) of a production enterprise is the various sales entities in their organizational and legal relationships in the process of functional activities for the sale of goods of a production enterprise.

Sales policy is aimed at defining, forming and implementing effective activities of the entire sales system; forms and methods of sales, organization of a network of sales channels for the goods of a manufacturing enterprise in relation to certain markets and specific consumers. The corporate mission and sales strategy of a manufacturing enterprise should be guided by certain forms and methods of sales, and the development of a sales policy implies the ultimate goal of determining the optimal directions (channels), means and organization necessary to ensure maximum efficiency of the targeted sales process.

Sales policy can be divided into three closely related phases.

Preparatory stage - the one that precedes the direct movement of goods and the sale of goods to end customers. The degree of thoughtfulness and quality of work performed at this stage largely predetermines the success or failure of all subsequent sales activities. At this stage, the following activities are carried out:

- planning and development of an action strategy for the implementation of sales policy;

- calculation (forecasting) of sales volumes, in accordance with a specific location of distribution of consumers and a specific time period (quarterly or monthly);

- determination of the most appropriate means of delivery of goods to wholesale depots, warehouses, stores;

- creation or selection of sales channels, determination of the construction of a network of sales points (retail stores);

- conducting research and selection of wholesalers, distributors and agents.

The stage of specific activity on the organization of a system for the physical movement of goods from the manufacturer to the destinations (wholesalers' warehouses, retail stores, end customers).

The stage of organizing the sales activity itself, i.e. work with end customers who purchase goods moved within the channel. ...

The stage of developing a sales policy is preceded by an analysis and assessment of the effectiveness of the existing sales system as a whole, as well as its individual sales channels and entities, including an analysis of the compliance of the sales policy pursued by the enterprise with specific market conditions and the strategic direction of development. In this case, the analysis should be subject to the whole complex of factors that determine the size and nature of sales: the correct choice of the market and measures to generate demand; accurate timing and methods of entering the market; the effectiveness of the selected forms and methods of sales and organization of the sales network and its individual channels; the effectiveness of means and activities to promote sales and so on.

The development and justification of the sales policy of a manufacturing enterprise involves the solution of issues and a choice in terms of:

- product policy;

- assortment policy;

- pricing policy;

- communication policy;

- distribution policies;

- service policy.

The development and justification of a sales policy in relation to a specific product (group of products) involves the solution of the following main issues related to the definition and selection:

- the target market (and its segments);

- sales systems: forms, methods and specific sales channels;

- the way to enter the market;

- time to market;

- systems (organization and means) of distribution and distribution of goods;

- systems (forms and methods) of sales promotion;

- organization of sales and service (pre- and after-sales).

The sales policy of each enterprise is of great importance in its marketing activities. It is the sales system that concentrates the main result of the marketing being carried out. Insufficient efficiency of sales activities can jeopardize the existence of the entire company as a whole.

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The product distribution system is one of the most important in the marketing policy of the enterprise. In the marketing policy, marketers touch upon the issues of choosing the most optimal distribution channel, the method of selling goods, which, if used effectively, will undoubtedly increase the company's profit.

Product distribution channels

One of the points of the marketing policy of the enterprise is the choice of the optimal distribution channel. A sales channel (distribution) of a product is an organization or a person engaged in the promotion and exchange of a specific product (several groups of products) on the market.

The sale of products in most cases is carried out through intermediaries, each of which forms a corresponding distribution channel. The use of intermediaries in the field of circulation is beneficial, first of all, for manufacturers. In this case, they have to deal with a limited circle of stakeholders in the sale of products. In addition, a wide availability of goods is ensured when they move directly to the sales market. With the help of intermediaries, it is possible to reduce the number of direct contacts between manufacturers and consumers of products.

Supply and sales organizations, large wholesale depots, stock exchange structures, trading houses and shops can act as intermediaries. Among the main reasons for the use of intermediaries are the following:

the organization of the product distribution process requires the availability of certain financial resources;

the creation of an optimal system of commodity circulation presupposes the availability of appropriate knowledge and experience in the field of market conditions for their goods, methods of trade and distribution;

Intermediaries, thanks to their contacts, experience and specialization, allow to ensure wide availability of goods and bring them to target markets.

Enterprises in a market economy pay considerable attention to the problems of optimizing the process of promoting goods from manufacturer to consumer. The results of their economic activities largely depend on how correctly the distribution channels of goods, the forms and methods of their sale, on the breadth of the range and quality of services provided by the enterprise related to the sale of products are chosen.

The distribution channel takes over and helps transfer ownership of a particular product or service to someone else on the way from producer to consumer. The distribution channel can be interpreted as a way of movement of goods from producers to consumers. Distribution channel members perform a number of functions that contribute to the successful solution of marketing requirements. These should include such functions as: conducting research work, sales promotion, establishing contacts with potential consumers, manufacturing goods in accordance with the requirements of buyers, transporting and storing goods, financing issues, taking responsibility for the functioning of the distribution channel.

Distribution channels can be of three types: direct, indirect and mixed.

Direct channels are associated with the movement of goods and services without the participation of intermediary organizations. They are most often set between manufacturers and consumers who control their marketing program themselves and have limited target markets.

Indirect channels are associated with the movement of goods and services, first from the manufacturer to the unknown intermediary participant, and then from him to the consumer. Such channels usually attract enterprises and firms that, in order to increase their markets and sales volumes, agree to give up many sales functions and costs and, accordingly, a certain share of control over sales, and are also willing to somewhat weaken contacts with consumers.

Mixed channels combine the features of the first two distribution channels. Thus, enterprises of the machine-building complex make little use of the advantages of direct contacts with suppliers; they sell their products through a system of intermediaries. Other state and commercial intermediary organizations and enterprises emerge, guaranteeing a significantly larger range of supply and marketing services.

Thus, it can be seen that a significant skill is required from the firm in carrying out its sales policy. It should also be noted when it is important to develop your own trading network. This is advisable if the amount of goods is large enough to justify the cost of organizing a retail network with a profit, if consumers are close enough to the company and their number is small, since the costs of organizing a network will be low if the product requires highly qualified service, etc.

Methods of marketing goods

It is not for nothing that the concept of a sales channel was considered above. The concept of the length and width of the sales channel is related to this concept.

The length of the distribution channel is the number of participants in the distribution process, that is, the number of intermediaries in the entire distribution chain. There are several levels of length, the simplest of which are as follows: producer - retailer - consumer and producer - wholesaler - retailer - consumer. This includes the concept of a wholesale marketing method.

Distribution channel width is the number of independent objects in the distribution process at a certain stage, for example, the number of wholesalers of a product.

Wholesale method of selling goods

Wholesale trade essentially covers the entire totality of commodity resources, which are both means of production and consumer goods. As a rule, in wholesale trade, goods are purchased in large quantities. Wholesale purchases are carried out by intermediary organizations with the aim of subsequent resale to grassroots wholesale organizations, retail trade enterprises. In most cases, wholesale trade is not associated with the sale of products to specific end consumers, i.e. it allows manufacturers to sell goods through intermediaries with minimal direct contact with consumers. Wholesale trade is an active part of the sphere of circulation in the commodity market.

In addition, wholesale trade is an important lever for maneuvering material resources, contributes to the reduction of surplus stocks of products at all levels and the elimination of commodity shortages, and takes part in the formation of regional and sectoral commodity markets. Through the wholesale trade, the consumer's influence on the manufacturer increases, there are real opportunities to achieve a match between demand and supply, to provide each consumer with the opportunity to purchase products within their financial capabilities and in accordance with needs.

In turn, the manufacturer himself selects the consumer, which means that he himself must determine the range and volumes of products produced for the market based on the prevailing market conditions.

Wholesale trade is a form of relations between enterprises, organizations, in which economic ties for the supply of products are formed by the parties independently. It influences the system of economic relations between regions, industries, determines the routes of movement of goods in the country, due to which the territorial division of labor is improved, proportionality is achieved in the development of regions. For the rational distribution of the trading environment, wholesale trade must have specific data on the current state and prospective changes in situations in regional and sectoral markets. The main tasks of the wholesale trade are:

marketing research of the market, supply and demand for industrial and technical products and consumer goods;

placement of production of goods in the range, quantity and quality required by the consumer;

timely, complete and rhythmic provision of goods in a wide range of intermediary, retail enterprises, consumers;

organization of storage of commodity stocks;

organization of systematic and rhythmic import and export of goods;

ensuring the priority of the consumer, increasing his economic impact on the supplier, depending on the reliability of economic ties, the quality of the supplied products;

ensuring the stability of partnerships in economic relations, interconnection in all time categories (long-term, medium-term, current, operational);

the organization of the planned delivery of goods from the regions of production to the region of consumption;

widespread use of economic methods for regulating the entire system of relationships between suppliers and intermediaries. by consumers: reducing the total cost of moving goods from manufacturers to consumers.

The participants of the latter are closely related to the concept of wholesale trade, such as: broker, commission agent, dealer, trade agent. The wholesale method of distributing goods is widespread in many countries of the world, and, of course, is the only one in intercountry trade. From all of the above about wholesale trade, we can conclude that it belongs to the indirect method of marketing, a method in which manufacturers use the services of various intermediaries to reach consumers.

Retail

In the process of goods movement from manufacturers to consumers, retail trade is the final link that closes the chain of economic ties. In retail trade, material resources are transferred from the sphere of circulation to the sphere of collective, individual, personal consumption, i.e. become the property of consumers. It does this by buying and selling, as consumers buy the goods they need in exchange for their cash income. Here, starting opportunities are created for a new cycle of production and circulation, since the goods are converted into money.

Retail trade includes the sale of goods to the population for personal consumption, organizations, enterprises, institutions for collective consumption or economic needs. Products are sold primarily through retail and food service establishments. At the same time, the sale of consumer goods is carried out from the warehouses of manufacturing enterprises, intermediary organizations, company stores, procurement points, workshops, ateliers, etc. Retail trade performs a number of functions:

examines the situation on the commodity market;

determines supply and demand for specific types of goods;

searches for goods required for retail trade;

carries out the selection of goods, their sorting when drawing up the required assortment;

makes payment for goods received from suppliers;

conducts operations for acceptance, storage, labeling of goods, sets prices for them;

provides suppliers, consumers with freight forwarding, consulting, advertising, information and other services.

Retail trade, taking into account the specifics of customer service, is subdivided into stationary, mobile, mail order.

The stationary retail network is the most widespread, it includes both large modern, technically equipped stores and stalls, stalls, booths, vending machines. At the same time, a distinction is made between self-service stores, and which the buyer has free access to goods. A kind of stationary trade are also stores of the "store-warehouse" type; the goods in them are not laid out on showcases, shelves, which significantly reduces the cost of loading, unloading, stacking, so the sale in them is carried out at lower prices. These shops usually operate on the outskirts of large cities.

Stores selling goods from catalogs are being created. Such trading is based on the preliminary selection of goods. Catalogs can be given out to potential customers who have visited the store, or sent to them by mail. The buyer, having studied the catalogs, having selected the goods, sends the order indicating his details to the store by mail (or by teletype, telephone). The store decides to ship the goods to the buyer. If there is a showroom in the store, the buyer can make an absentee order from the catalog or visit the store and personally select the product he needs.

The organization of the sale of goods through vending machines has considerable potential. They are convenient in that they can work around the clock, without sales staff. The machines are installed inside or outside the store. The subject of trade is usually a certain range of consumer goods (drinks, sandwiches, chewing gum, cigarettes, stationery, mail envelopes, postcards, etc.).

A mobile trading network contributes to the proximity of the goods to the buyer and their prompt service. This trade can be delivery with the use of vending machines, trailers, as well as delivery with the use of trays and other simple devices. A variation of this type of trade is direct selling at home. At the same time, sales agents of manufacturers of sales, intermediary and trade enterprises supply and sell products directly to the buyer.

The parcel trade is engaged in providing the population, enterprises, organizations with book products, stationery, audio and video recordings, radio and television equipment, medicines. With the help of this form of trade, consumers can also receive some production and technical products (spare parts, tools, rubber products, etc.).

In the structure of retail trade, an assortment characteristic is taken into account. Products are usually grouped into appropriate groups (subgroups) based on production origin or consumer use. In the retail trade, various types of stores operate in this regard.

Specialized stores sell goods of one specific group (furniture, radio goods, electrical goods, shoes, fabrics, clothes, milk, etc.).

Highly specialized stores sell goods that are part of a product group (subgroup) (men's clothing, workwear, silk fabrics, etc.).

Combined stores carry out the sale of goods of several groups (subgroups), reflecting the common demand or satisfying the corresponding circle of consumers (cultural goods, books, etc.).

Department stores sell products from many product groups in specialized sections.

Mixed shops sell products of various groups, both food and non-food, without forming specialized sections.

So, the sales policy of the enterprise is also aimed at increasing the efficiency of the company, since in the sales area all marketing efforts to increase profitability are finally manifested, adapting the sales network to the consumer, the company has more chances to withstand the competition, it is in this area that the entrepreneur is closer to the buyer ...

"Advertising is a print, handwritten, oral or graphic communication about a person, product, service or social movement that is openly sent by and paid for by the advertiser for the purpose of increasing sales, expanding clientele, gaining votes or public approval." In modern conditions, advertising is a necessary element of production and sales activities, a way to create a sales market, an active means of fighting for a market. It is because of these functions that advertising is called the engine of commerce.

Within the framework of marketing, advertising should: first, prepare the market (consumer) for a favorable perception of a new product; secondly, to maintain demand at a high level at the stage of mass production of goods; third, to help expand the sales market. Depending on the stage of the product's life cycle, the scale and intensity of advertising change, the ratio between prestigious advertising (advertising of an exporting company, the competence of its personnel, etc.) and commodity (i.e. advertising of a specific product); the ways of its dissemination also change, its arguments are updated, fresher, more original ideas are selected.

Although advertising costs are significant, especially when publishing ads in the foreign press, participating in exhibitions and fairs, etc., these costs are fully justified. First, the funds allocated for advertising are included in the calculation of the price of the goods, and the sale of the corresponding amount compensates for the costs. Secondly, without advertising, trade is usually sluggish, causing losses, often many times greater than the cost of advertising. As international practice shows, advertising costs average 1.5-2.5% of the cost of sold goods for industrial purposes and 5-15% for household goods.

Preparation of promotional materials is a complex and responsible business that requires special knowledge and considerable practice. We must learn the truth that according to the skill of advertising, the quality of advertising texts and photographs, a potential consumer makes the first impression of our exporting company and involuntarily, subconsciously transfers his opinion about the quality of advertising to the product we produce. To change this opinion for the better, you will have to spend a lot of work and money. Therefore, advertising must be impeccable, otherwise it turns into its opposite - "anti-advertising".

It is necessary to strongly refute the conventional opinion that a good product does not need advertising. On the contrary, only a good, competitive product needs advertising, and the most intensive one, and advertising of a poor quality product leads to huge economic costs and loss of the company's good name. In this case, it will take years and millions to restore the reputation.

Personal sale

Personal selling refers to the oral presentation of a product for the purpose of selling it in a conversation with one or several potential buyers. This is the most effective tool for promoting a product at certain stages of its marketing, especially for creating a favorable attitude among buyers towards the offered products, primarily towards production products. However, this is the most expensive promotion method. American companies spend three times as much on personal selling as they do on advertising.

In our country, this method is currently being compromised by representatives of various "wholesale companies". Representatives of the "Canadian Wholesale Company" have already become the talk of the town. On the doors of many institutions, there are announcements that the representatives of the above and similar companies are not allowed to enter.

"The fire must be aimed, and the weapon must correspond to the type of target."
Napoleon Bonaparte

Distribution systems, or distribution channels, are the path that goods travel from the manufacturer to the final consumer.

There are different distribution channels and the manufacturer has a choice. It can sell goods directly to customers through salespeople, as well as through direct mail delivery, orders taken by phone or online store. Products can be supplied to retailers, who in turn sell them to end consumers, or wholesalers, from whom the goods go to retailers and then to buyers.

The manufacturer needs to make a competent and rational choice of distribution channels, which depends on the various characteristics of the manufacturer himself, buyers, goods and is carried out between direct and indirect channels.

Direct sales (zero-level distribution channel) does not imply the presence of intermediaries, since the sale of goods is carried out directly to consumers on the basis of direct contacts with them. Direct sales include the sale of products through our own retail network, as well as sales through advertisements in the media. This option is most often used in the sale of industrial and technical goods, less often - consumer goods.

Indirect sales (multilevel distribution channel) involves the sale of goods through intermediaries. There are one-, two- and three-level channels. The quantitative characteristic of the distribution channel, along with the length, is its width - the number of intermediaries (wholesale and retail) at any stage of the sale of an enterprise's products (for example, the number of all wholesale firms purchasing goods from the manufacturer). For example, the largest manufacturer of Russian off-road vehicles Ulyanovsk Automobile Plant, after restructuring, has 96 dealers in the regions of the Russian Federation and 18 in the CIS and non-CIS countries, to which UAZ makes rather serious demands.

There is an opportunity not only to choose distribution channels, but also to combine them or create your own. It is known that some companies producing women's cosmetics do not use the established distribution channels, but build their distribution networks on the principle of personal hand-to-hand sales, the so-called Multi-Level Marketing (MLM), or network marketing.

When building its sales, the manufacturer must clearly understand the priority of certain channels, determine their optimal configuration in terms of width and depth.

The distribution channel should correspond to the type of product, its market positioning and have the maximum possible coverage of target consumer groups.

If several channels are used to market products, then conflicts in their work must be avoided. There is often a situation when a manufacturer independently conducts active trade operations in the region at very low prices, thereby demotivating intermediaries. It actually competes with them for access to the consumer and deprives intermediaries of the opportunity to promote the product at the trade margin they expect.

The second important aspect of sales policy is the choice of intermediaries. If the manufacturer gives preference to this distribution channel, he must define the relationship with intermediaries as exclusive, selective or intense.

Exclusive marketing policy means that only one dealer in a given geographic area is entitled to sell the products of a given manufacturer. Often, car dealerships have exclusive sales rights in their respective regions. Large holdings, such as OJSC NTMK, supply products exclusively through the trading house. This allows the main producers of the holding to focus their efforts on production, and the retailer - on the sale of products.

When selective marketing policy the manufacturer chooses a limited number of intermediaries to promote his product in a given territory. Many sporting goods and clothing are sold this way.

Cigarette manufacturer British American Tobacco (BAT) had five main distributors in 1997; in 2001 this list was reduced to three wholesalers, and in 2002 to two. Reducing the number of resellers allows BAT to manage the distribution channel and achieve high sales figures.

Manufacturer choosing intensive marketing policy, tries to find as many intermediaries as possible to promote their product, as, for example, firms that produce milk do.

The choice of specific intermediaries is an important point in building a sales policy. Remember the story that was reported in the press in the early 90s. The largest domestic manufacturer of trucks KamAZ has delivered a batch of its vehicles to Poland. The Poles immediately resold them to South Korea at a price double that requested by KamAZ. South Korea, after a little cosmetic refinement of the trucks, resold them to Latin America at a cost one and a half times higher than the Polish one. As a result, KamAZ missed at least 3/4 of its profit due to the wrong choice of an intermediary.

To increase sales efficiency, it is necessary to evaluate the intermediaries. The assessment is carried out in several directions.

Image
Ask yourself the question: "Do the buyer have the same image ideas about the manufacturer and the intermediary?" It is inappropriate to try to promote an exclusive product aimed at high-income consumer groups through networks or intermediaries who are positioned to sell a cheap product aimed at low-income consumer groups, as well as vice versa. For example, the sale of expensive jewelry through a network of station kiosks.

A sad example is the history of the Herbalife company. An unsuccessful entry into the market of food additives through network marketing ended in discrediting not only the sales channel itself, but also all the company's products, which later had to reposition its brands at great expense.

Opportunities
Namely: access to regional sales markets; coverage of target groups of consumers; possible sales volumes. Often a situation arises when a manufacturer is not able to access a certain circle of intermediaries due to their weakness: low sales volumes, lack of representation in certain regions (districts) and, most importantly, poor contact with target groups of buyers. The opposite situation is when the intermediary's capabilities are significant: the market coverage is too large and irrational, the manufacturer is not able to ship the required volumes, to ensure the recognition of the product (brand).

State of development
Solvency, the need for additional working capital, the volume of warehouse space, the number of vehicles, the number and qualifications of sales personnel, partners and counterparties, technical equipment.

Requirements and conditions of work of intermediary companies.
The typical conditions of the intermediary's activity, the specifics of logistics, his requirements for the timing and volume of deliveries should be taken into account. This analysis will unify relations with intermediaries and develop the most attractive offer for them. In the event of significant discrepancies between the positions of the intermediary and the manufacturer, having the generalized information, it is easier to find a compromise. In some cases it is necessary to yield to the demands of the intermediaries, in others - to justify your tough position.
The promising cooperation of the European Furniture Company (EMK, Saratov region) with the giant IKEA ended sadly. After the 1998 crisis, the Swedish corporation was the largest and practically the only sales channel for EMK, so the Saratov furniture makers agreed to all the conditions put forward by the partner (reduced prices). Orders from IKEA were received until 2001, but then the Swedes refused to renew the contract with the supplier. After some time, EMK went bankrupt and soon came under the control of Shatura near Moscow.

Competition between intermediaries
There are unique intermediaries that can demonstrate high efficiency and meet all the wishes of the manufacturer. Thus, food manufacturers seek to get into retail chains that provide good coverage of the target consumer group, with high throughput and a proper image. But in this case, the retail chain puts forward a number of serious requirements for the supplier, including offering to pay for the placement of goods in supermarket halls at rates depending on the occupied area of \u200b\u200bthe shelves.

The manufacturer must "exploit" competition, if any, between intermediaries at the same sales level. By giving preference to a group of suppliers, the manufacturer is inevitably positioned as a partner of the network, dealer, etc. On the one hand, this makes it difficult to expand the number of intermediaries, on the other hand, it makes relations more durable and long-term. The element of competition between intermediaries for the right to sell the manufacturer's product allows for a more stringent marketing policy.

The image, opportunities and state of development of the intermediary must correspond to the strategic objectives of the manufacturer and assume the maximum effect both in terms of reaching target groups of consumers and in terms of sales.

The third most important aspect of the sales policy is the rules of interaction with intermediaries. First of all, they must be formalized and unchanged for quite a long time. Frequent changes in the rules of interaction with intermediaries are a demotivating factor for them. Among other things, both parties incur additional costs due to the disorder of the relationship. We are talking about an increase in the time for negotiating, and about delays in shipment and payment, and about the inevitable switch between intermediaries. For the manufacturer, this means the loss of a customer and, as a result, the cost of finding a new one. According to a study published in the Harvard Business Review, a 5% increase in repeat customers translates into a 15-30% increase in profits. Modern methods of increasing customer loyalty and building long-term partnerships will help not only significantly increase current profits, but also make the business much more sustainable in the long term.

Terms and conditions of payment
The manufacturer determines the terms of payment according to the degree of severity: from 100% prepayment and shipment no later than, for example, 2 months to the most lenient option: transfer of products for sale and payment upon completion. As you can see, the range of possible options is large and making a decision on the feasibility of a particular option depends on a number of essential conditions and should be correlated with the strategic objectives of the manufacturing company. Full advance payment not only increases the requirements for the intermediary, assumes that he has significant working capital, reduces the volume of sales, does not allow to effectively use some sales channels, but in some cases it is simply impossible. However, this method allows you to reduce accounts receivable to a minimum. Barter relations, according to experts, are not optimal and do not contribute to an increase in the efficiency of sales policy. However, non-monetary forms of payment are used as a means of preserving output in inefficient industries and as a way to divert an enterprise's income into the shadows. As a result, the company actually improves its real financial and economic position, although not entirely by market or legal means. Non-monetary transactions are blamed on enterprises, since they are beneficial only to the producers themselves, but not to the state, shareholders and society as a whole. The real financial and economic situation of enterprises is positively influenced only by the effective demand for manufactured products. Neither barter, promissory notes, nor offsets have ever helped companies improve their position. Moreover, they negatively affected their condition.

Conditions and order of deliveries (logistics of deliveries)
The range of options here is also wide, ranging from "self-pickup from Nizhny Tagil" and ending with well-organized deliveries using optimal transport schemes: choosing the cheapest delivery methods, minimizing empty trips, using appropriate transport containers, adherence to delivery times, which is especially important when organizing delivery small consignments of perishable goods to a large number of outlets. Quite often, product delivery is a related service that increases the attractiveness of the supplier.

Requirements for support, service and warranty maintenance
Legal support for work with intermediaries. Some types of goods require additional services related to the specific consumption of this product. First of all, we are talking about pre-sale preparation, service, warranty and post-warranty service. The manufacturer must ensure the formation of the infrastructure by outsourcing such services to intermediaries, specialized service companies, or setting up their own service networks. Ancillary services include design, installation and dismantling services, as well as financial services such as credit sales. To do this, it is not necessary to divert your own working capital, you can use the services of specialized companies, such as leasing, insurance, banks.

Changes in the sales policy of JSC “UAZ” in 2001 were aimed at forming a network of regional dealers. Certification of dealerships began, which made it possible to consider the products of OJSC "UAZ" not as a car, but as a product representing "a car + pre-sale service + warranty repair + post-warranty service and a certain level of service." Despite the decline in production in physical terms, sales revenue increased by 8% compared to the 2000 level.

Linking sales and motivation of intermediaries
We are talking about the manufacturer's pricing and communication policies. Often, pricing is not systematic, but almost random. In the worst case, the price is tied to the industry average or calculated using a simple cost + profit formula. When calculating prices, it is necessary to take into account a number of conditions: the life cycle of a product, its uniqueness, value for the consumer, brand awareness, competitors' prices, and the availability of additional supporting services. In addition to the basic cost of a product, it makes sense to talk about differentiated prices for product groups. Often, the product range expands to offer the buyer a range of related products, i.e. assortment policy is carried out.

Price differentiation implies the ability to sell an individual product either at an average cost, or at a lower price, or at a price higher than the average. The manufacturer, by varying prices, can attract additional buyers. In this regard, it is important to divide the product into main and additional, the cost of which differs with a minus or plus from the market average. A good example is the sale of Gillette shaving machines. The machine retails for about $ 3-5, and the company may lose (taking into account all production and promotion costs) on the sale of each of them. Packaging of disposable blades for this machine costs $ 4-10. The average man uses 1 machine and several packs of blades per year. The losses from the sale of each machine are compensated tenfold by the profit from the sale of blades.

Usually, such schemes develop spontaneously in the markets, but often the manufacturer can dictate the conditions for creating such schemes and, depending on his strategy, decide from which group of goods he intends to make more profits, and which one to sacrifice for the sake of increasing sales and turnover.

The second type of differentiation is volume discounts, payment periods, and extra charges for the urgency of delivery. The calculation of a rational price for a product requires taking into account many factors, and the cost must be differentiated.

Implementation of communication policy requires financial and human resources. It's about creating intangible assets, not just informing buyers or informational support for sales. A product recognizable on the market has a better chance of reaching the end consumer. If the manufacturer pays tribute to the communication policy, then the intermediary will spend less effort and money on promoting the product through the channel and, accordingly, receive more profit.

The manufacturing company must create a recognizable trademark (brand); to form a positive image of the company in the eyes of partners, buyers, various organizations (PR); carry out events aimed at attracting additional buyers to your product (promotions, tastings, presentations, etc.). This is sales promotion.

From a marketing point of view, the most important distinctions between marketing types are:

1. Marketing distinguishes between simple and complex sales.

Simple sales are sales that include only two links: the manufacturer and the reseller. An example of such marketing can be the activity of a villager on a personal plot: he grows vegetables or fruits, and then sells them on the market himself.

Complex sales involve a longer pattern of goods movement. In this case, there is cooperation with sales organizations, the company can create its own system of wholesale and retail branches that are engaged in sales, etc.

2. Depending on whether intermediary firms are used, there are three main marketing methods: direct, indirect and combined.

Direct marketing means that a manufacturer offers its products to consumers directly without resorting to independent resellers. The main positive feature of this type of marketing is that the manufacturer does not lose full control over the movement of goods and, if necessary, has the ability to adjust the process. In addition, this method of marketing is the least costly, since the manufacturer does not need to maintain a separate division or an independent company that will be engaged in sales.

Indirect marketing is sales that are carried out through independent intermediaries. The advantage of this type of marketing lies mainly in its efficiency. Obviously, a professional, who, moreover, has the ability to constantly be engaged in any business, will do any job better. And, therefore, from a certain point of view, contacting an intermediary organization is more beneficial and expedient. In particular, special intermediary firms have a developed base of retail outlets with which they work, and this is very important for direct access to the end consumer. Due to the fact that intermediaries have developed links with retail trade, the payback rate of the project also increases. This form of marketing is more widespread than direct marketing. Studies have shown that about 2/3 of the export deliveries of cars and equipment are carried out by firms in developed Western countries in this way.

Combined marketing, as its name suggests, combines the two previous types of marketing. In this case, the manufacturer either uses trading enterprises with mixed capital as intermediaries, which includes both the manufacturer's funds and the funds of the trading company, or relies to varying degrees on direct and indirect sales.

The choice between marketing systems depends primarily on economic viability. As soon as the company began to make a profit, the question immediately arises of creating its own sales network. In this case, it is necessary to see whether it is possible to increase profits in this way, or whether it is better to invest the money earned in production.

It is clear that the second option - investing money in production - is more expedient if, for example, the profit rate of an enterprise is 25%, while the creation of a retail network can give only 10-13%. Obviously, it would be more reasonable in such a situation to refuse to create your own distribution network.

3. From the point of view of the composition of the sales network, there are traditional, vertical, horizontal and multi-channel sales systems.

The traditional distribution system brings together independent producers, independent wholesalers and retailers. In this situation, the manufacturer offers goods that wholesale and retail trade organizations voluntarily, for their own benefit, decide to distribute among end consumers. Moreover, each of the participants in the sales system seeks to maximize their profits only in their own area of \u200b\u200bactivity; otherwise, their behavior could well be called selfish. This is how most sales systems are organized.

In a vertical marketing system, there are the same participants, but they do not pursue their own "selfish" goals, but strive for some common goals and results. This is possible in two cases:

• a) if both the manufacturer and the trading firms belong to the same owner. Such sales systems are usually called corporate. Often, manufacturers specifically create firms that will sell their goods; less often trading firms create organizations engaged in production in order to be not only an intermediary, but also to offer their own goods on the market;
• b) if manufacturing enterprises and trade organizations have entered into a cooperation agreement or adopted some documents coordinating their activities.

Within the framework of the horizontal system, several independent manufacturing enterprises are united, which intend to master the market. Such a sales system is usually used when one enterprise does not have the resources necessary for market development (money, experience, knowledge, etc.).

Finally, a multichannel sales system involves the use of several types of sales, that is, in one way or another, it combines the features of a traditional, vertical and horizontal systems. It is clear that a distribution system is multichannel if it combines the features of at least two of the above systems (for example, an enterprise operates both through trading firms that it has created itself, and through independent trading organizations).