The class system of social stratification. Types of stratification systems. Main types of stratification

Characteristics of social stratification

Social stratification acts as a central topic that is considered within the framework of sociological science. In fact, social stratification is aimed at describing the social inequality that is present in society, the division of society into layers, taking place along the following lines:

1. Income level;
2. Lifestyle;
3. The presence or absence of certain privileges.

In a primitive society, inequality was insignificant, so at that time there was practically no stratification. People have not yet realized the possibility of cooperation for the achievement of any benefits or satisfaction of more serious needs than the need for food and procreation. Hence the absence of a visible division of primitive society into estates, the absence of stratification as such. But as society became more complex, social inequality also increased: it was this inequality that divided people according to some of the characteristics that we have already indicated above: the level of income, lifestyle and the presence of privileges and powers.

Castes are gradually formed, and then estates. A little later, society begins to divide into classes. Transitions from one social stratum to another in different communities are carried out to varying degrees. Somewhere it is quite simple to do it, but somewhere a person is inherited from an older generation, and he is not able to change it, since this privilege is not provided for in society. In general, the freedom of social movement, of any kind of mobility, is determined by how society itself is - open or closed.

Social stratification implies the absence of a homogeneous social system, as well as the equality of people with each other. Someone has more income and resources, while some citizens lack material resources in order to satisfy their interests and needs. For this reason, a division of society occurs, and its elements can both cooperate with each other and enter into visible confrontation with each other, which affects the quality of life of the entire society as a whole. For this reason, special social norms and guidelines are created that allow you to control society and the relationship between persons who represent various social categories of citizens.

These norms were also not formed immediately. In the very first stratification system, the most primitive, which arose in the primitive period, there were no regulatory components at all, which in general did not bother people. They did not fight for power or the imposition of their own rules and interests: in a primitive society, the goal was to survive, as well as to preserve their clan, their health without negative consequences.

Features of the system of social stratification

Remark 1

The basis of social stratification is a special social differentiation. It implies the division of people according to some criteria into social groups.

These groups can be related to each other both on a horizontal scale and on a vertical one. Much depends on what the society is like, where this division is organized, and what features it possesses (the level of closeness and openness is taken into account in particular). The most common is the social stratification of society, which is based on some of the most important features:

1. Income, by which we mean the amount of money that an individual or members of his family receives in general over a certain period of time;
2. Wealth is the totality of all movable and immovable property, which also includes the presence of accumulated income in the form of money savings, which are used by a person in a necessary life situation;
3. Power as a third factor reflects the individual's capabilities and abilities to control other people, to make special decisions for them;
4. Prestige is the degree of respect in society for a particular profession, which can also imply a high level of income, wealth and the presence in the hands of an individual of power, which he must dispose of in accordance with applicable law.

There are several systems of social stratification in history that developed in different historical periods and reflected the features of the social structure of that time. Much depends on what type of social system belongs to - open or closed. Thus, in open systems, it was always enough for individuals to simply change their own social status, since they did not have severe restrictions, and could make independent decisions in relation to certain situations. Any member of the social system could both go up and down the social ladder, mostly it was a purely personal decision, and such movements also depended mainly on him.

Speaking about closed systems of social stratification, it is worth emphasizing that they presuppose the unconditionality of a person's prescribed status. This status could be passed on from generation to generation (for example, the status of a slave), and it was difficult or almost impossible for a person to change his own social position. Such systems are predominantly characteristic of traditional societies, especially in the past (caste system). In addition, in closed systems of stratification, there was a greater variety of social strata and systems that reflected the specifics of the structure of society at that time. For example, this includes the slave system, caste and estate systems, and the class system. The last two, however, assumed a freer movement of individuals, as well as the implementation of their social stratification.

Remark 2

Thus, the system of social stratification implies the presence of groups of individuals that differ from each other in terms of income, the presence or absence of power and wealth, as well as prestige, which determines the importance of the professional status of an individual in the social system.

Social stratification is based on social differentiation - the division of people into groups that are related to each other both on a horizontal and a vertical scale. The most common is the social stratification of society based on the following criteria:

• income - the amount of money that a family or a certain individual received over a certain period of time;
• wealth - movable and immovable property, as well as the presence of accumulated income in the form of cash savings;
• power - the ability and ability to manage other people;
• prestige - the degree of respect in society for a particular profession.

History knows various systems of social stratification.

AT open systems it is enough for individuals to simply change their social status. The openness of the system means the ability for any member of society to climb (descend) the social ladder in accordance with their abilities and efforts. In such systems, the achieved status means no less than the one prescribed from birth. In modern society, any individual, regardless of gender and origin, can, at the cost of more or less efforts, significantly increase his original status, for example, starting from zero, become the president of the country.

Closed systems stratification, on the other hand, presupposes the unconditional primacy of the assigned status. Here it is almost impossible for an individual to change the status acquired by origin. Such systems are common in traditional societies, especially in the past. For example, the caste system that functioned in India before 1950 prescribed strict boundaries between four castes, the belonging of individuals to which was determined by origin. At the same time, members of each caste were prescribed a strictly defined occupation, their own rituals, food system, rules for dealing with each other and with a woman, and a way of life. The veneration of the representatives of the higher castes and contempt for the lower ones were enshrined in religious institutions and traditions. There were cases of transition from caste to caste, but as isolated exceptions to the rule.

There are four main systems of social stratification:

• slavery;
• caste;
• estates;

Slavery characterized by the possession of some people by others. Slavery was most widespread in agrarian societies, and slavery was least typical for nomadic peoples, especially hunters and gatherers.

The conditions of slavery and slavery varied significantly in different regions of the world. In ancient Greece, slaves were engaged in manual labor, giving free citizens the opportunity to express themselves in politics and the arts. In some countries, slavery was a temporary condition of a person: having worked for his master for the allotted time, the slave became free and had the right to return to his homeland. The Israelites freed their slaves in the jubilee year - every 50 years. In ancient Rome, slaves generally had the opportunity to buy freedom; to collect the amount necessary for the ransom, they made a deal with the owner and sold their services to other people (this is exactly what some educated Greeks who fell into slavery to the Romans did). History knows cases when a rich slave began to lend money to his master and in the end the master fell into slavery to his former slave. In many cases, slavery was for life; in particular, criminals sentenced to hard labor turned into slaves and worked in Roman galleys as rowers until their death.

Slave status was not always inherited. In ancient Mexico, the children of slaves were always free people. But in most countries, the children of slaves also automatically became slaves. In some cases, the child of a slave who served all his life in a wealthy family was adopted by this family, he received the surname of his masters and could become one of the heirs along with the other children of the masters.

Castes. In the caste system, status is determined by birth and is lifelong; in other words, the basis of the caste system is the prescribed status. The achieved status is not able to change the place of the individual in this system. Those who by birth belong to a low-status group will always have this status regardless of what they have personally achieved in life.

Societies that are characterized by this form of stratification strive to clearly preserve the boundaries between castes, therefore endogamy (marriages within one's own group) is practiced here and intergroup marriages are prohibited, complex rules have been developed according to which communication with representatives of lower castes defiles the higher caste.

Estates system received the greatest distribution in feudal Europe and some traditional societies of Asia, for example, in Japan. Its main characteristic is the presence of several (usually three) stable social strata, to which individuals belong by origin and the transition between which is very difficult, although in exceptional cases it is possible. The basis of the estate system is the legal organization of society, which provided for the inheritance of titles and statuses, therefore, marriages were usually concluded within the same class. The fundamental difference between estates was not so much economic well-being, but rather access to political and social power and socially significant knowledge. Each class possessed a monopoly on certain types of occupations and professions. The estate system is a closed system, although occasionally an individual change of status was allowed: as a result of inter-estates marriages, at the behest of a monarch or feudal lord - as a reward for special merits, when taking monastic vows or receiving the dignity of a clergyman.

Class system much more open than systems of stratification based on slavery, castes and estates, where the boundaries dividing people are so clear and firm that they do not leave people the opportunity to move from one group to another, except for marriages between members of different clans. The class system is based primarily on money or material property. Although belonging to a class is also determined at birth - an individual receives the status of his parents, however, the social class of an individual during his life can change depending on what he was able (or failed) to achieve in life. In addition, there are no laws that define an individual's occupation or profession according to birth or prohibit marriage with members of other social classes. Consequently, this system of social stratification is characterized by the relative flexibility of its boundaries. The class system leaves room for social mobility, i.e. to move up (down) the social ladder. Having the potential to improve social status, or class, is one of the main driving forces that motivate people to study well and work hard. Of course, the marital status inherited by a person from birth can determine extremely disadvantageous conditions that will not leave him a chance to rise too high in life, or provide him with such privileges that it will be almost impossible for him to “slide down” the class ladder.

Ideas about social mobility

The concept of social mobility was first introduced by P. Sorokin, who defined it as "any transition of an individual, social object or value, created or modified through activity, from one social position to another." Sorokin considered mobility as one of the necessary social functions. Downward mobility is caused by the pushing out of less successful and less competitive individuals in the competitive struggle, and at the level of group mobility - by a decrease due to objective factors in the social prestige of specific professions, the loss of popularity by political parties, etc.

Social mobility is called the movement of individuals in the system of social stratification from one layer to another. There are at least two reasons for the existence of social mobility in a society. First, societies are changing, and social change is reshaping the division of labor, creating new statuses and undermining old ones. Second, while the elite can monopolize educational opportunities, they are unable to control the natural distribution of talent and ability, so the upper strata inevitably replenish with talented people from the lower.

Social mobility comes in many forms. She may be:

• vertical is a change in the position of an individual, which causes an increase or decrease in his social status. For example, if a car mechanic becomes a director of a car service, this is a manifestation of upward mobility, and if a car mechanic becomes a cleaner, such a movement would be an indicator of downward mobility;
• horizontal - a change in the position of an individual, which does not lead to an increase or decrease in social status. For example, if an auto mechanic gets a job as a locksmith, such movement would mean horizontal mobility;
• intergenerational (intergenerational), determined by comparing the social status of parents and their children at a certain point in the careers of both (for example, according to the rank of their profession at approximately the same age). Studies show that a significant part, perhaps even the majority, of the Russian population moves at least slightly up or down in the class hierarchy in each generation;
• intragenerational (intragenerational), which involves comparing the social status of an individual over a long period of time. As evidenced by the research results, many Russians changed their occupation during their lives. However, the mobility of the majority is limited. Moving a short social distance is the rule, and a long distance is the exception.

For open systems of stratification, vertical mobility is a fairly common phenomenon, if we are not talking about dizzying leaps from the bottom to the elite, but about moving step by step. For example, the grandfather is a peasant, the father is a rural teacher, the son moves to the city and defends his thesis.

In closed systems, social mobility is practically impossible. For example, in caste and estate societies, the social norm was, on the one hand, tens of generations of shoemakers, tanners, merchants, serfs, and on the other, long genealogical chains of noble families. The monotony of such a social reality is indicated by the names of streets cited in historical sources, for example, Khlebny lane, Kuznetsky Most street in Moscow. Craftsmen passed on their status and profession from generation to generation, and even lived nearby.

Types of stratification systems

Social inequality can be represented in the form of a scale, where at one pole - the rich, people who own the maximum amount of scarce resources, at the other - the poor, respectively, with minimal access to public goods. Distinguish between absolute and relative poverty. Under absolute poverty a condition is understood in which an individual on the income received is not able to satisfy even basic needs (for food, clothing, housing) or to satisfy them in an amount that ensures only biological survival. The inability to maintain socially accepted "decent" living standards is seen as relative poverty.

Poverty is not only the economic and social condition of people, but also a special way, a lifestyle that is passed down from generation to generation and limits the possibilities for normal civilized development. In Russia for the characteristics scale of poverty, which is determined by the specific weight of the part of the population of the country that is in the officially recorded traits, or poverty line... commonly used indicator living wage. Considering that at present about 30% of the Russian population lives near or below the poverty line. an important task of the state is to reduce poverty.

To measure inequality, P. Sorokin introduced two parameters:

• stratification height - the amount of social distance between the highest and lowest status in a given society;
• stratification profile - the ratio of the number of social positions held in the hierarchy of values \u200b\u200bof the status layer (stratum).

It should be noted that there is the following pattern: the higher the level of development of society, the lower the height of stratification, and vice versa. So. at developed societies stratification profile approaching diamond-shaped form at the expense of the large middle class, and in the backward - to the pyramidal, or "conical". The Russian stratification profile rather resembles a triangle with a vertically projecting acute angle.

An important empirical indicator of social inequality is decile factor, which is understood as the ratio of the incomes of the richest 10% to the 10% of the lowest paid groups. So, in highly developed industrial countries it is 4-7, where even the approximation of this coefficient to 8 is considered as an indicator of impending social upheavals.

In general, despite the differences in the views of different sociological schools and trends, it can be noted that social inequality performs a positive function in society, since it serves as a stimulus for the progress of social development.

Under social stratification system it is customary to understand the totality of methods that support the unevenness of this distribution in a particular society. In sociology, there are four main historical types of stratification systems: slavery, castes, estates and classes. The first three characterize closed societies in which social movement from one stratum to another is either completely prohibited or significantly limited. The fourth type belongs to open a society where the transitions from the lower strata to the higher are quite real.

1. Slavery is a form of economic, social and legal enslavement of people. This is the only form of social relations in history in which one person is the property of another, deprived of all rights and freedoms.

2. Caste system - a stratification system, which assumes a person's lifelong attachment to a certain stratum on an ethnically religious or economic basis. Man owes his membership in this system exclusively to birth. India is a classic example of a caste system, where detailed regulations existed for each caste. So. according to the canons of this system, belonging to one caste or another was inherited, and therefore the possibility of transition from one caste to another was prohibited.

3. The estate system is a stratification system that involves the legal assignment of a person to a certain stratum. At the same time, the rights and obligations of each stratum were determined by law and sanctified by religion. Membership in the estate was mainly inherited, but as an exception it could be acquired for money or given.

The estate organization of the European feudal society was subdivided into two upper classes (nobility and clergy) and unprivileged third estate (merchants, artisans, peasants). The barriers between estates were quite tough, so social mobility was carried out not so much between, as within the estates, which included many ranks, ranks, strata, professions.

4. The class system is an open-type stratification system, where, unlike the previous closed-type systems, class membership is determined primarily by place in the system of social production, ownership of property, as well as the availability of abilities, education, and the level of income received.

The considered stratification system is generally recognized, but not the only classification. In reality, all stratification systems are closely intertwined and complement each other.

»Class social stratification

Class social stratification

Class stratification is characteristic of the open type of society. It differs significantly from both the caste system and the estate system.

The differences in class stratification are manifested in the following:

1) classes are not created on the basis of religious doctrine or on the basis of legal norms;
2) class membership is not inherited;
3) boundaries between classes are rather blurred than rigidly delineated; classes are mobile;
4) the division into classes depends on economic differences (associated with inequality in the ownership or control of material resources);
5) the level of social mobility is higher in a class society (there are no formal restrictions, but mobility is constrained by starting opportunities and aspirations).

A class is a social group of people who own or do not own the means of production, who occupy a certain place in the system of social division of labor and are characterized by a specific way of earning income.

The most influential theoretical approaches to defining class stratification belong to K. Marx and M. Weber. According to Marx, a class is a community of people in direct relation to the means of production. He distinguished in society at various stages of its existence the exploited and exploited.

The stratification of society according to Karl Marx is one-dimensional and is associated only with classes, since its main basis is the economic position, and all other foundations (rights, privileges, power, influence) fit into the space of the economic situation, are combined with it.

M. Weber defined classes as groups of people with a similar position in the market economy, receiving similar economic rewards and having similar life chances. Class divisions result from economic differences not related to property. Such sources include professional skill, rare specialty, high qualifications, intellectual property ownership, etc.

M. Weber provided not only class stratification, considering it only a part of the structuring necessary for a complex capitalist society. Weber proposed a three-dimensional division: if economic differences (in terms of wealth) give rise to class stratification, then spiritual (in terms of prestige) - status, and political (in terms of access to power) - party stratification. In the first case, we are talking about the life chances of social strata, in the second - about the image and style of their life, in the third - about the possession of power and the influence on it. Most sociologists consider Weber's scheme to be more flexible, corresponding to modern society.

Weber's views formed the basis of modern stratification. Currently, the generally accepted sociological model of the stratification structure of society in some countries (for example, in Great Britain) is the division of the population into three classes - working, intermediate, and upper.

Manual workers are classified as working class, low-level non-physical workers are classified as intermediate class, managers and professionals are classified as upper class.

In a country as developed from a sociological point of view as the United States, different sociologists propose different class typologies. In one there are seven, in the other six, in the third there are five, etc. social strata.

The first typology of classes in the United States was proposed in the 40s. XX century American sociologist Lloyd Warner:

- the upper-upper class included the so-called "old families". They consisted of the most successful businessmen and those who were called professionals. They lived in privileged parts of the city;
- the lower-upper class in terms of material well-being was not inferior to the upper-upper class, but did not include old clan families;
- the upper-middle class consisted of property owners and professionals who had less material wealth in comparison with people from the upper two classes, but they actively participated in the public life of the city and lived in rather comfortable districts;
- the lower-middle class was made up of lower employees and skilled workers;
- the upper-lower class included low-skilled workers employed in local factories and living in relative wealth;
- the lower-lower class consisted of those who are usually called the "social bottom" - these are the inhabitants of basements, attics, slums and other places unsuitable for life. They constantly felt an inferiority complex due to the hopeless poverty and constant humiliation. In all two-part words, the first denotes a stratum or layer, and the second, the class to which this layer belongs.

The middle class (with its inherent strata) is always distinguished from the working class. The working class may include the non-working, unemployed, homeless, the poor, etc. As a rule, highly skilled workers are included not in the working class, but in the middle class, but in its lower stratum, which is filled mainly by low-skilled workers - employees ...

Another option is possible: workers are not included in the middle class, but two strata are left in the general working class. Specialists are included in the next layer of the middle class (the term “specialist” implies at least college education).

The upper stratum of the middle class is filled mainly by "professionals" - specialists who, as a rule, have a university education and great practical experience, are distinguished by high skill in their field, engaged in creative work and belonging to the so-called category of self-employed, that is, having their own practice , their business (lawyers, doctors, scientists, teachers, etc.).

The middle class is a unique phenomenon in the world history of the stratification system of society. It appeared in the XX century. The middle class acts as a stabilizer of society, and this is its specific function. The larger it is, the more stable the favorable political and economic atmosphere in society.

Representatives of the middle class are always interested in preserving the order that gives them such opportunities for realization and prosperity. The thinner and weaker the middle class, the closer to each other the polar points of stratification (lower and upper classes), the more likely their collision. As a rule, the middle class includes those who have economic independence, that is, they own an enterprise, firm, office, private practice, their own business, as well as scientists, priests, doctors, lawyers, middle managers, the petty bourgeoisie, in other words, social basis of society.

Test work on the topic:

TYPES OF STRATIFICATION SYSTEMS.

There are many stratification criteria by which any society can be divided.

There are nine types of stratification systems,

which can be used to describe any social organism, namely:

1. Physico-genetic

2. Slave

3. Caste

4. Estates

5. Etakratic

6. Social and professional

7. Class

8. Cultural and symbolic

9. Cultural normative

1. Physico-genetic stratification system

It is based on the differentiation of social groups according to "natural", socio-demographic characteristics. Here, the attitude towards a person or group is determined by gender, age and the presence of certain physical qualities - strength, beauty, dexterity.

Accordingly, the weaker, with physical disabilities are considered flawed and occupy a humiliated social position. Inequality is affirmed in this case by the existence of the threat of physical violence or its actual use, and then it is fixed in customs and rituals.

2. Slave-owning stratification system

This system is also based on direct violence. But inequality here is determined not by physical, but by military-legal coercion. Social groups differ in the presence or absence of civil and property rights. Certain social groups are completely deprived of these rights and, moreover, on a par with things, are turned into an object of private property. Moreover, this position is most often inherited and thus fixed in generations.

Examples of slave systems are very diverse. This is ancient slavery, where the number of slaves sometimes exceeded the number of free citizens, and servitude in Russia during the "Russian Truth", this is plantation slavery in the south of the North American United States before the Civil War of 1861-1865.

3. Caste stratification system

It is based on ethnic differences, which, in turn, are reinforced by religious order and religious rituals. Each caste is a closed, as far as possible, endogamous group, which is assigned a strictly defined place in the social hierarchy. This place appears as a result of the isolation of the special functions of each caste in the system of the division of labor. There is a clear list of occupations that members of this caste can engage in: priestly, military, agricultural. Since the position in the caste system is inherited, the possibilities for social mobility are extremely limited here. And the more pronounced caste, the more closed this society is.

4. Estate stratification system

In this system, groups differ in legal rights, which, in turn, are rigidly linked to their responsibilities and are in direct proportion to these responsibilities. Moreover, the latter imply obligations to the state, enshrined in legislation. Some estates are obliged to carry out military or bureaucratic service, others - "tax" in the form of taxes or labor duties.

5. Etakratic stratification system

In it, differentiation between groups occurs, first of all, according to their position in the power and state hierarchies (political, military, economic), according to the possibilities for mobilizing and distributing resources, as well as according to the privileges that these groups are able to extract from their positions of power. The degree of material well-being, the lifestyle of social groups, as well as the prestige they feel, are connected here with the formal ranks that these groups occupy in the corresponding power hierarchies. All other differences - demographic and religious-ethnic, economic and cultural - play a derivative role.

The etakratic system is revealed with the greater force, the more authoritarian the state rule takes.

6. Social and professional stratification system

Here the groups are divided according to the content and conditions of their work. A special role is played by the qualification requirements for a particular professional role - the possession of relevant experience, abilities and skills. The approval and maintenance of hierarchical orders in this system is carried out with the help of certificates (diplomas, categories, licenses, patents), which fix the level of qualifications and the ability to perform certain types of activities. The effectiveness of qualification certificates is supported by the power of the state or some other sufficiently powerful corporation (professional workshop). Moreover, these certificates are most often not inherited, although there are exceptions in history.

Social and professional division is one of the basic stratification systems, various examples of which can be found in any society with any developed division of labor.

This is the structure of craft workshops of the medieval city and the category grid of modern state industry, a system of certificates and diplomas of education received, a system of scientific degrees and titles that open the way to more prestigious jobs.

7. Class stratification system

The class approach is often opposed to the stratification one.

But for us, class division is only a special case of social stratification. Of the many interpretations of the concept of "class", we will dwell in this case on the more traditional - socio-economic. In this interpretation, classes represent social groups of citizens who are free in political and legal relations. Differences between groups primarily in the nature and size of ownership of the means of production and the product produced, as well as in the level of income and personal material well-being.

Unlike many previous types, belonging to classes - bourgeois, proletarians, independent farmers, etc. - is not regulated by the highest authorities, is not established by law and is not inherited (property and capital are transferred, but not the status itself). In its pure form, the class system does not contain any internal formal barriers at all (economic prosperity automatically transfers you to a higher group).

Economically egalitarian communities, where class differentiation is completely absent, is a rather rare and unstable phenomenon.

But throughout most of human history, class divisions are still subordinate. They come to the fore, perhaps, only in bourgeois Western societies. And the class system reaches its greatest heights in the United States of America imbued with a liberal spirit.

8. Cultural and symbolic stratification system.

Differentiation arises here from differences in access to socially significant information, unequal opportunities to filter and interpret this information, and the ability to be a carrier of sacred knowledge (mystical or scientific). In ancient times, this role was assigned to priests, magicians and shamans, in the Middle Ages - to the ministers of the church, who make up the bulk of the literate population, interpreters of sacred texts, in modern times - to scientists, technocrats and party ideologists.

Claims for communication with divine forces, for possession of scientific truth, for the expression of state interests existed always and everywhere. And a higher position in this respect is occupied by those who have the best opportunities to manipulate the consciousness and actions of other members of society, who are better than others who can prove their rights to true understanding, who own the best symbolic capital.

To simplify the picture somewhat, we can say that theocratic manipulation is more characteristic of pre-industrial societies; for industrialists - partocratic; and for the post-industrial it is technocratic.

9. Cultural normative stratification system.

Isolation of the elite, differentiation of all middle and lower strata.

In the peasant community, where formally everyone is equal to each other, there are "serviceable owners" who live "according to custom", "according to their conscience", and idlers, renegades, "tumbleweeds".

Its own normative culture, its own patterns of behavior and its own "aristocracy" are at the very "bottom", within the criminal world. The emergence of countercultures and the so-called antisocial behavior, by the way, is also largely a product of moral regulation and ideological control exercised in this community.

Conclusion.

The highest groups in all stratification systems strive to consolidate their position, to make it not only monopoly, but also inherited. AT class system such inheritance is ensured by the principle of entitlement (transfer of the main property to the senior heir), characteristic, say, of ancient India, western Europe of the 11th-13th centuries, or Russia up to 1917 (in this case, other relatives actually go down the class ladder).

AT etacratic To the system, an official does not formally have the right to transfer his chair and powers to his own children, but he is able, through protection, to provide them with an equally enviable place in an institution of a similar rank.

The situation in social and professional , cultural and symbolic and cultural regulatory systems is often transmitted in reality through education and upbringing, the transfer of experience and secrets of skill, the authorization of certain codes of conduct (professional dynasties are not the only, but a striking example).

As for physico-genetic system , then it stands somewhat apart, because inheritance occurs here often, but not as a result of any social mechanisms, but purely biologically.

Regardless of the forms that social stratification takes, its existence is universal. There are four main systems of social stratification: slavery, castes, clans and classes.

Slavery Is an economic, social and legal form of enslavement of people, bordering on complete lack of rights and extreme inequality ..

Causes of slavery . An inherent feature of slavery is the possession of some people by others. Both the ancient Romans and the ancient Africans had slaves. In ancient Greece, slaves were engaged in manual labor, giving free citizens the opportunity to express themselves in politics and the arts. Slavery was the least typical for nomadic peoples, especially hunters and gatherers, and it was most widespread in agrarian societies.

There are usually three reasons for slavery. First, a promissory note, when a person who was unable to pay debts fell into slavery to his creditor. Secondly, violation of laws, when the execution of a murderer or robber was replaced by slavery, i.e. the culprit was handed over to the injured family as compensation for the grief or damage caused. Thirdly, war, raids, conquest, when one group of people conquered another and the victors used some of the captives as slaves.

Conditions of slavery. The conditions of slavery and slavery varied significantly in different regions of the world. In some countries, slavery was a temporary condition of a person: having worked for his master for the allotted time, the slave became free and had the right to return to his homeland. Thus, the Israelites freed their slaves in the jubilee year, every 50 years. Slaves in ancient Rome tended to buy freedom; in order to raise the amount necessary for the ransom, they made a deal with their master and sold their services to other people (this is exactly what some educated Greeks who fell into slavery to the Romans did). However, in many cases, slavery was for life; in particular, criminals sentenced to life work were turned into slaves and worked in Roman galleys as rowers until their death.

The status of a slave was not always inherited. In ancient Mexico, children of slaves were always free people. But in most countries, the children of slaves also automatically became slaves, although in some cases the child of a slave who served in a rich family was adopted by this family, he received the surname of his masters and could become one of the heirs on an equal basis with the other children of the masters. As a rule, slaves had neither property nor power. However, for example, in ancient Rome, slaves had the opportunity to accumulate some kind of property and even achieve a high position in society.

Slavery in the New World originates from the service of Europeans under the treaty. This service in the New World was a cross between an employee contract and slavery.

Many Europeans who decided to start a new life in the American colonies were unable to pay for the ticket. The captains of ships sailing to America agreed to carry such passengers on credit, provided that after they arrived at the site, someone would be found to pay their debt to the captain. Thus, the poor got the opportunity to get to the American colonies, the captain received payment for their transportation, and the wealthy colonists received free servants for a certain period.

General characteristics of slavery . Although the practice of slavery was different in different regions and in different eras, regardless of whether slavery was the result of unpaid debt, punishment, war captivity, or racial prejudice; whether it was for life or temporary; hereditary or not, the slave was still the property of another person, and the system of laws fixed the status of a slave. Slavery served as the main distinction between people, clearly indicating which person is free (and according to the law receives certain privileges), and which is a slave (having no privileges).

Slavery has evolved historically. There are two forms of it:

patriarchal slavery - a slave had all the rights of a junior member of the family: he lived in the same house with the owners, participated in public life, married free; it was forbidden to kill him;

classical slavery - the slave was finally enslaved; he lived in a separate room, did not participate in anything, did not marry and did not have a family, he was considered the property of the owner.

Slavery - the only form of social relations in history when one person acts as the property of another, and when the lower stratum is deprived of all rights and freedoms.

Castoy is called a social group (stratum), membership in which a person owes exclusively to his birth ..

The achieved status is not able to change the place of the individual in this system. People who belong to a low-status group by birth will always have this status no matter what they have personally achieved in life.

Societies that are characterized by this form of stratification strive to clearly preserve the boundaries between castes, so endogamy is practiced here - marriages within one's own group - and there is a ban on intergroup marriages. To prevent contact between castes, such societies develop complex rules regarding ritual purity, according to which it is believed that communication with representatives of the lower castes defiles the higher caste.

Indian society is the most prominent example of the caste system. Based not on racial, but on religious principles, this system has existed for nearly three millennia. The four main Indian castes, or varnas, are subdivided into thousands of specialized podcasts (jati), with each caste and each jati practicing a particular craft; so, brahmanas can only be priests or scientists, the kshatriya caste is made up of noble people and warriors; all vaisyas are merchants and skilled artisans; sudras — ordinary workers and peasants; harijan - outcast, untouchable, degrading labor.

Although the Indian government announced the abolition of the caste system in 1949, the power of age-old traditions cannot be overcome so easily, and the caste system continues to be a part of daily life in India. For example, the ceremonies that a person undergoes at his birth, marriage, death are dictated by caste laws. However, industrialization and urbanization are destroying the caste system, since it is difficult to maintain caste lines in a city crowded with strangers.

Until recently, the Republic of South Africa was another example of a society in which social stratification was based on a caste system. Europeans of Dutch descent - a large national minority calling themselves Afrikaners, exercising control over the government, police and army, implemented the ideas of their own system of stratification, which they defined as apartheid - the division of races. The country's population was divided into four racial groups: Europeans (whites), Africans (blacks), colored (mixed race), and Asians. Belonging to a specific group determined where this or that person has the right to live, study, work; where one or another person has the right to swim or watch a movie - white and non-white people were forbidden to be together in public places. After decades of international trade sanctions, sports boycotts, etc. Afrikaners were forced to liquidate their caste system.

After the abolition of slavery in the United States (January 1, 1863), it was "replaced" by a racial caste system - the birth of a person imposed a lifelong meta on him, and all white Americans, including the poor and uneducated, considered themselves better and higher than any African American origin. This attitude persisted even in the first half of the 20th century, many years after the abolition of slavery. Just as in India and South Africa, upper-caste whites were afraid of getting dirty from talking to blacks, insisting on the existence of separate schools, hotels, restaurants, and even toilets and drinking fountains in public places.

Clan - genus or related group linked by economic and social ties ..

The clan system is typical of agrarian societies. In such a system, each individual is associated with an extensive social network of relatives - a clan. A clan is something like a very ramified family and has similar features: if a clan has a high status, the same status has an individual belonging to this clan; all funds belonging to the clan, poor or rich, are equally owned by each member of the clan; loyalty to the clan is a lifelong responsibility of each clan member.

Clans also resemble castes: belonging to a clan is determined by birth and is lifelong. However, unlike castes, marriages between different clans are quite tolerated; they can even be used to create and strengthen alliances between clans, since the obligations imposed by marriage on the spouse's relatives can unite members of two clans. The processes of industrialization and urbanization transform clans into more volatile groups, eventually replacing clans with social classes.

Clans are especially close in times of danger, as the following example shows.

Class - a large social group of people who do not own the means of production, occupying a certain place in the system of social division of labor and characterized by a specific way of earning income ..

Stratification systems based on slavery, castes and clans are closed. The boundaries dividing people are so clear and firm that they do not leave people the opportunity to move from one group to another, except for marriages between members of different clans. The class system is much more open, as it is based primarily on money or material property. Belonging to a class is also determined at birth - an individual receives the status of his parents, however, the social class of an individual during his life can change depending on what he has managed (or failed) to achieve in life. In addition, there are no laws that define an individual's occupation or profession depending on birth or prohibit marriage with members of other social classes.

Consequently, the main characteristic of this system of social stratification is the relative flexibility of its boundaries. The class system leaves room for social mobility, i.e. to move up or down the social ladder. Having the potential to improve their social standing, or class, is one of the main driving forces that motivate people to study well and work hard. Of course, the marital status inherited by a person from birth can determine extremely unfavorable conditions that will not leave him a chance to rise too high in life, and provide the child with such privileges that it will be almost impossible for him to “slide down” the class ladder.

SOCIAL MOBILITY AND ITS TYPES

The concept of "social mobility" was introduced by P. Sorokin. Social mobility means the movement of individuals and groups from one social strata, communities to others, which is associated with a change in the position of an individual or group in the system of social stratification. The possibilities and dynamics of social mobility differ in different historical conditions.

The options for social mobility are varied:

individual and collective;

vertical and horizontal;

intragenerational and intergenerational.

Vertical mobility is a change in the position of an individual, which causes an increase or decrease in his social status, a transition to a higher or lower class position. It distinguishes between ascending and descending branches (eg, career and lumpenization). Horizontal mobility is a change in position that does not lead to an increase or decrease in social status.

Intra-generational (intergenerational) mobility means that a person changes position in the stratification system throughout his life. Intergenerational or intergenerational - suggests that children are in a higher position than their parents.

P. Sorokin refers to the following social institutions as channels or "lifts" of social mobility: army, church, educational institutions, family, political and professional organizations, mass media, etc.

Social stratification expresses the social heterogeneity of society, the inequality that exists in it, the unequal social status of people and their groups. Social stratification is understood as the process and result of the differentiation of society into various social groups (strata, strata) that differ in their social status. The criteria for dividing society into strata can be very diverse, moreover, both objective and subjective. But most often today, one distinguishes profession, income, property, participation in power, education, prestige, self-esteem by a person of his social position. According to researchers, the middle class of a modern industrial society determines the stability of the social system and at the same time provides it with dynamism, since the middle class is, first of all, a highly productive and highly qualified, proactive and enterprising worker. Russia is classified as a mixed type of stratification. Our middle class is at the stage of formation, and this process is of key and broad significance for the formation of a new social structure.