Approaches to determining the essence of fixed assets. Basic concepts and definitions. Examples of fixed and current assets
As you know, any relationship means a connection between at least two subjects. That is why the legal literature discusses the question of who is the other, opposed to the heirs, the subject of hereditary legal relationship. The testator is often called such a subject. This seems to be an obvious mistake. Indeed, the heirs receive the rights and obligations of the testator. His death gives rise to a hereditary relationship. But the subject of law is a person with legal capacity. The legal capacity of a citizen is terminated by death (clause 2, article 17 of the Civil Code). Consequently, it cannot be a participant in any legal relationship. Therefore, hereditary, legal relationship arises, that with the disappearance of the subject, legal uncertainty arises and it is required to resolve the issue of ownership of the property of the deceased.
The inheritance relationship is absolute, it defines only the person - the heir. He can accept the inheritance, refuse it, not accept the inheritance. All third parties (“everyone and everyone”) are obligated. Their duty is reduced to not interfering with the heir in the exercise of his rights.
The composition of the inheritance (the object of the hereditary legal relationship) is determined according to the rules established by Art. 1112 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation.
The rights and obligations included in the inheritance mass are not included in the content of the inheritance legal relationship. When the heir accepts the inheritance, the inheritance relationship is terminated; the heir becomes a participant in those legal ties in which the testator was.
The right of inheritance, consisting of the three specified powers (to accept the inheritance, to refuse it, not to accept it), belongs to each of the heirs. This right is inalienable. Obviously, this right can be considered inextricably linked with the person. There is only one exception under Art. 1156 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation, - the transfer of the right of inheritance by inheritance (hereditary transmission).
The inheritance relationship is characterized by all the common features of civil relations: 1) legal equality of subjects; 2) discretion; 3) the initiative of the subjects.
The equality of subjects is manifested in the fact that no one can influence the will of the heir so that he accepts the inheritance or renounces it. Acceptance of an inheritance by one heir does not oblige other heirs to anything.
Dispositiveness is the assumption of freedom of choice of behavior. The heir can choose whether to accept the inheritance or not. However, there are also restrictions established by law. So, Art. 1158 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation provides for cases when the rejection of the inheritance in favor of any particular person is impossible.
Usually, the initiative of the subjects of civil law is manifested in the fact that the first step in the development of civil legal relations is made by the subjects themselves. In this regard, the originality of the hereditary legal relationship should be noted: the subjects of this relationship can take the initiative after the onset of a certain event - the death of the testator.
Like any other legal relationship, inherited legal relationship in its development goes through two obligatory stages - emergence and termination, in addition, sometimes there is an intermediate stage - change.
The inheritance relationship is generated by the death of a citizen or by declaring him dead.
The prerequisites for an inherited legal relationship are facts - states: kinship, marriage, dependent state, relationship between the adoptive parent and the adopted child.
A change in the inherited legal relationship can occur along the lines of subjects and content.
However, although a will is now quite common, more often there is no will after the death of a citizen. The explanation for this is the fact that the person was going to live and live still (why then a will?), And the fact that often there is nothing special to bequeath. The notorious mentality also affects. In such cases, the law (Civil Code of the Russian Federation) prescribes to whom the property of the deceased is transferred. First of all - to the children, spouse and parents of the testator. If they do not exist, then to the full-blooded and incomplete brothers and sisters of the testator, grandfather and grandmother, etc. (Art. Art. 1 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation). In such situations, the absence of a citizen's disposal of his property in case of death is compensated by the instructions of the law.
In addition, sometimes even in the presence of a will, the law (the will) “corrects” it.
When a citizen dies, his property (things, rights, duties) remains, but there is no subject, there is no one who owns these things and rights, the one who bears before third parties. This property is waiting for the heirs. That is why they say that with the death of a citizen an inheritance is opened.
Declaring a citizen as deceased is required in cases when he is absent for a long time and it is not known where he is. But there is property (things) that belongs to him, before someone he bears, from someone he has the right to demand something. Thus, there is legal uncertainty. In order to eliminate it, the citizen is declared dead, in order to open the inheritance and, ultimately, the specified property, conditionally abandoned (or "fallen"), acquired the subject (heir).
The rules for declaring a citizen dead are contained in Art. 45 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation.
Declaring a citizen dead does not mean that he really died. This is just a presumption (assumption). If he is absent for a long time, and there is no information, then perhaps he died. But a citizen can be alive. By general rule he is returned the remaining property, which was transferred to anyone without compensation after the citizen was declared dead (Article 46 of the Civil Code).
The time of death of a citizen is confirmed by a death certificate issued by a body authorized to produce state registration acts of civil status.
A death certificate on the territory of the Russian Federation is issued by a civil registry office (hereinafter referred to as a registry office) or a local government body of a municipal formation, on the territory of which there is no registry office. In the event of the death of a citizen of the Russian Federation outside the Russian Federation - a consular institution.
Studying the issue of the formation and development of inheritance law in Russia is necessary for further development science of civil law on the issues under consideration.
In the court's opinion, in concluding that the testator bequeathed to his daughter only half of the apartment, and not the entire apartment, the lower court rightly proceeded from the literal interpretation of the will, according to which the testator bequeathed specific property in the form of a share in the apartment that belonged to him at the time drawing up a will. Consequently, since the testator began to possess the right of ownership of the entire apartment much later, there was no reason to believe that he bequeathed the entire apartment, since the will did not contain an indication that the testator would bequeath to his daughter property that could be acquired by him in the future , with what art. 1120 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation was not subject to application.
Thus, in one of the cases, the court established that Ch.S. applied to the court with a claim against Ch.Z., S.Z., S.E. to invalidate Ch.M.'s closed will, drawn up *** year, adopted *** year by a notary of the Vladikavkaz notary district of Alania ***, drawn up in favor of S.E., S.Z. and Ch. Z.
*** year Ch. M., *** year of birth, drew up and signed a closed will, which was accepted *** by a notary of the Vladikavkaz notary district - Alania ***. In accordance with the content of the will, Ch. M. bequeathed all his property (an apartment at *** and cash contributions) to his sister Ch. Z. and the daughters of his nephew S. Ye., S. Z.
In view of MA's illness, at his personal request and in the presence of a notary, the will was signed, M. Yu. Filed a lawsuit to invalidate the will, claiming that at the time of its drawing up the testator was in a painful state and did not give account of his actions. By the decision of the Tagansky District Court of Moscow dated 01.01.01, which entered into legal force, the claim was denied. In the present case, M. Yu. Contested the will, arguing that the procedure for drawing it up had been violated: an unauthorized person was present at the signing, the will was not read to the testator. The court concluded that the rules of the law were not violated when the will was drawn up. However, the panel of judges, disagreeing with the conclusions of the court, considered that the circumstances of the case, which the court recognized as established, did not follow from the evidence examined by the court. In the decision, the court referred to the notary's message. Meanwhile, this document came to the court after the decision was made, which follows from the court's stamp on the date of its receipt, the case materials do not contain other information about the receipt of the document before the decision was made. The investigation of this evidence is not reflected in the minutes of the court session.
However, in violation of the requirements of Art. 12 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation, the court did not create the conditions and did not allow the plaintiff to prove his allegations, since he refused to interrogate A.A., the testator's handler. The conclusion about the impossibility of interrogation or the absence of this need by the court is not properly motivated, the court did not take sufficient measures to summon the witness.
From the case in question it follows that the court according to the rules established by Art. 12, 57, 67 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation, did not investigate the circumstances that the plaintiff indicated as grounds for invalidity.
It seems to us that the court should have clarified the grounds for invalidity. The plaintiff referred to the presence of a stranger when the will was drawn up and that the will had not been read to the testator. It was necessary to find out how the presence of an outsider affected the validity of the will. If the presence entailed a violation of the principle of secrecy, then a different method of protection applies to such cases - compensation for moral damage at the request of the testator. Violation of the principle of secrecy, perhaps only during the life of the testator. In our case, the dispute arose after the death of the testator. If the presence entailed a violation of the goodwill of the testator, then this circumstance had to be proved.
The decision of the judicial collegium dated 01.01.01, canceled the decision of the Meshchansky District Court of Moscow dated 01.01.01, ruling on the claim of D.L. to K.A. on invalidating the will on the grounds of Art. 177 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation. Canceling the court's decision, the panel of judges indicated the following. The court carried out a posthumous forensic psychiatric examination, according to the conclusion of which D.A., during the execution of the will, suffered from an organic disorder in the form of toxic (alcoholic) encephalopathy. Having come to the conclusion that D.A.
The court did not examine this question, did not find out whether the plaintiff is an interested person and whether he has the right to challenge this transaction.
By this case the court did not take into account that the current legislation does not give everyone the right to challenge the will in court.
As follows from the case, the will was contested on the grounds provided for by Art. 177 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation.
The defendant filed a petition for the appointment of a re-examination in the case, but the court rejected this petition, without indicating the reasons why it considers it not subject to satisfaction.
The will was contested due to the inability of the testator at the time of its preparation to understand the meaning of his actions. However, the court did not investigate this issue.
By the decision of the panel of judges dated September 21, 2010, the decision was canceled. Canceling the court's decision, the panel of judges indicated the following. In support of the claim, it is indicated that the will was signed not by T. E., but by an unknown person. A forensic handwriting examination was carried out in the case. According to the expert's conclusion, the attestation on the will of "T. E." executed, probably, not by T. Ye. himself, but by another person. Resolving the dispute, the court concluded that the testator did not sign the will, since the expert commission did not confirm the authenticity of his signature, the notary's archive was not deposited, the defendants did not provide reliable evidence that the testament was signed by the testator. The panel of judges did not agree with this conclusion of the court. Considering that the submitted will contains the signature and the seal of the notary, the signature on behalf of TE, the burden of proving the fact of execution by another person and the invalidity of the will lay on the plaintiff. Therefore, the lack of evidence of this argument on the part of the defendants could not be the basis for the satisfaction of the claim. By virtue of Art. 67, 86 G of the PK RF, none of the evidence has a higher power for the court, the expert's opinion was subject to assessment according to the rules of Art. 67 G PK RF. The conclusion given by the court does not contain answers to the questions put by the court, the expert's conclusion is tentative in nature and cannot be used as the basis for the decision. According to Art. 67 G PK RF the court evaluates the evidence in their totality, objectively, comprehensively. In violation this requirement law, the court did not indicate on the basis of what body of evidence the conclusion that TE did not sign the contested will. The court also admitted violations of the norms of procedural law when appointing and conducting an examination. Comparative samples for research were obtained by an expert in a non-procedural way. There is no information in the materials of the case that the court allowed the expert's petition to provide additional documents, that the documents used by the expert as comparative samples were sent to the expert institution by the court, and before that they were presented to the parties and examined by the court as evidence in the case. Thus, the parties were deprived of the right to participate in the discussion of the issue of providing materials to the expert. It follows from the expert's conclusion that he used not the originals, but electrographic copies of documents signed by the testator. The court did not discuss the possibility of conducting a study on electrographic copies prior to its appointment and did not ask the expert the relevant questions after receiving the opinion. When making a decision, the court violated the requirements of Art. Of the Procedural Code of the Russian Federation, the operative part does not contain a conclusion on the results of the consideration of T. O.'s claim .. In the reasoning part, the court indicated that this claim was to be satisfied. T.O. is the heir of T.E. under the law of the second priority, it does not follow from the materials of the inheritance case that the inheritance was accepted by her. Meanwhile, the court did not indicate by what right she can challenge the will, and concluded that her claim should be satisfied. The court divided the inheritance between T. S. and T. E., However, none of them made such a claim.
In this case, the court also did not examine the circumstances cited by the plaintiff as grounds for invalidity.
other participants in the process, witnesses were sent summons.
From the certificate of the chairman of the collegium dated 01.01.01 (p. 183) lawyer K.V., who concluded an agreement with B.Yu. to represent his interests in court, from April 7 to 9, 2010 was on leave outside Moscow region.
The above circumstances indicate that B. Yu. Was improperly notified of the time and place of the trial and thus was deprived of the opportunity to present evidence to substantiate his arguments, which led to a violation of his right to defense under Art. 3 Г PC RF.
The court did not verify the arguments of the plaintiff that the testator MG visited the Council of Veterans during her lifetime on April 22 and April 29, 2009.
These circumstances indicate that the court, in violation of Art. 12 G PK RF did not create necessary conditions for a comprehensive and complete investigation of all the circumstances of the case.
In this case, the circumstances related to the reasons for not signing the will by the testator in his own hand have legal significance for the case. These reasons must be stated in the will and examined by the court.
K. applied to the court with a claim against Sh. To invalidate the will, to recognize the ownership of the inherited property, substantiating her claims by the fact that on November 14, 2007 her mother had died; after the death of her mother, she learned that the defendant Sh. (her own sister) had entered into inheritance rights on the basis of a will dated 01.01.01. She believed that her mother had not signed the said will, the signature on the presented will was forged. In this case, a handwriting examination was carried out, appointed by the court on January 21, 2009. The plaintiff's arguments were checked by the court in full and were not confirmed. By a court decision of July 8, 2009, K.'s claim against Sh. Regarding the invalidation of the will, the recognition of ownership was denied. The court in this case carefully checked the grounds for invalidity, named by the plaintiff, and found no grounds to satisfy the claim.
From all that has been said, we can conclude that arbitrage practice on the issue under consideration is ambiguous. Further analysis of judicial practice is required.
2.2 The concepts of fixed assets of the enterprise in the interpretation of various authors
Danilan A.A. believes that the fixed assets of the enterprise are means of labor that wear out gradually in the process of use and therefore serve for a long time, participate in several production cycles in an unchanged natural form. They do not include those instruments of labor that, according to the current instructions, are classified as low-value and quickly wearing items.
Bakaev A.S. writes that the composition of fixed assets reflects various material and tangible values \u200b\u200bused as means of labor in kind for a long time both in the sphere of material production and in the non-productive sphere. Fixed assets include: buildings, structures, workers and power machines and equipment, measuring and control devices and devices, computer Engineering, vehicles, tools, production and household equipment and accessories, working, productive and pedigree livestock, perennial plantings, on-farm roads and other relevant objects.
The structure of fixed assets also includes: capital investment for radical improvement of land (drainage, irrigation and other reclamation work); capital investments in leased fixed assets; land plots, natural resources (water, subsoil and other natural resources).
Kiryanov Z.V. gives the concept of fixed assets (funds). Fixed assets (funds) are means of labor that participate in the production process many times without changing their natural form, perform the same function over several production cycles and transfer their value into the product being created in parts. Consumption of fixed assets occurs in the process of their gradual depreciation.
He also divides fixed assets (funds) into production and non-production. Industrial fixed assets for agricultural purposes include industrial agricultural buildings, structures, transmission devices, agricultural machinery and equipment, working and productive livestock, capital expenditures for land improvement.
Non-agricultural production fixed assets include buildings, structures, non-transfer devices, machinery and equipment for the construction of industrial and production facilities, trade and catering.
Non-productive fixed assets include buildings, structures and equipment for housing, utilities and consumer services, education, culture and art, health care, physical education and social security.
Larionov A.D. gives the concept of the original, residual and replacement cost of fixed assets. In accounting, the fixed assets of the enterprise are reflected at their initial cost, that is, at the actual costs of their acquisition, construction, manufacture. Changes in the initial value of fixed assets are allowed only in cases of completion, retrofitting, reconstruction and partial liquidation. The residual value of fixed assets can be judged by the original cost based on the amount of accrued depreciation.
The replacement cost is understood as the cost of reproduction of objects in modern conditions. This estimate is not reflected in the accounting (except for the objects that have been revalued), but it is important in drawing up an estimate of the costs of reproduction, overhaul.
Glushkov I.E. distinguishes between the following types of valuation of fixed assets: initial value - full, that is, without deducting depreciation, and residual, that is, minus depreciation; the replacement cost is also full and residual, respectively. The initial cost is determined by the amount actually spent on the acquisition, construction, including installation of equipment included in the construction budget. Restoration is an assessment of fixed assets at modern prices, at the cost of reproduction at a given time. It allows you to compare the means of labor received at different times, to obtain accurate data on their size.
Volkov N.G. writes that the initial cost of an item of fixed assets depends on the nature of its acquisition or receipt and is formed in a different assessment:
· When buying an object, it is determined by the actual costs of its acquisition, which include money paid to the seller, organizations for the implementation of work under a construction contract or other contracts; special organizations for information services; remuneration of the intermediary organization through which the item of fixed assets was acquired;
· Registration fees, duties and other similar payments made in connection with the assignment of rights to the object;
· Customs duties and other payments;
· Non-refundable taxes paid in connection with the acquisition of objects;
· Other costs directly related to the acquisition of objects.
Upon receipt of an object as a contribution to the authorized capital, the initial cost of the object of fixed assets is determined in the amount agreed upon by the founders of the organization.
The regulation establishes that an organization can change the initial cost of fixed assets in the event of completion of construction work, reconstruction, as well as in the event of their partial liquidation.
Talitskaya T.V. writes that the revaluation of fixed assets can be carried out in one of two ways - using the indices of changes in the value of fixed assets developed by the State Statistics Committee of Russia, or by the method of direct assessment of the value of fixed assets using documented market prices, and the company can make an assessment itself or invite experts - appraisers ...
As is known, federal bodies prefer the direct assessment method because it is the most accurate, and allows you to correct inaccuracies accumulated as a result of the use of group average indices in the course of previous assessments. Direct appraisal should be supported by documents or expert opinions of independent appraisers. The degree of responsibility of the appraiser to the customer is largely determined by the contract concluded between them.
Pizengolts M.Z. writes that in the process of production activity of fixed assets of agriculture, they, while retaining their original material form, gradually wear out. To replace worn-out fixed assets, enterprises must accumulate the necessary funds, that is, the amounts of depreciation of fixed assets must be constantly reimbursed from the proceeds. This is achieved by calculating depreciation included in the cost of production.
Many organizations actively use in their economic activity fixed assets. For such organizations, it is extremely important to choose the correct method for calculating depreciation, since this is directly related to the problem of timely write-off of a worn out or obsolete object of fixed assets. All fixed assets of the organization are subdivided into homogeneous groups of objects, united by common technological or other characteristics. The breakdown should be guided by the All-Russian Classifier of Fixed Assets.
By the volume and nature of the repair work carried out, there are current, average and major repairs of fixed assets.
According to Yu.A. Babaev current repairs are considered to be repairs carried out with a frequency of less than one year. Its main goal is to maintain the facility in working order. In case of medium repair, partial disassembly of the unit being repaired and the restoration or replacement of part of the parts is carried out. Overhaul of equipment and vehicles is considered to be a type of repair in which a complete disassembly of the unit is carried out, the repair of basic and body parts and assemblies for new and more modern ones, assembly, adjustment and testing of the unit. Overhaul of buildings and structures - repair in which worn-out structures are replaced or replaced with more durable and economical ones, which improve the operational capabilities of the repaired objects.
Average repairs carried out with a frequency of more than one year are reflected in the accounting as capital, and with a frequency of more than once a year as current.
Some economists (Kondrakov N.P., Glushkov I.E.) subdivide repairs into only two types - current and capital.
Baryshnikov N.P. writes about the costs of repairing fixed assets, that in accordance with the Regulations on the composition of costs for the production and sale of products included in the cost of products, depending on the accounting policy adopted in the organization, the costs of repairs of fixed assets for production purposes can be included in production costs (circulation ) in one of the following ways:
· By including actual costs in production costs;
· By creating a repair fund (reserve);
· By assigning the actual costs of repairing fixed assets to the expense of deferred periods, followed by a straight-line write-off.
The first method is used for small volumes of repairs and uniform costs during the reporting period.
The second method involves the formation of a repair fund (reserve), which is created on a monthly basis with the transfer of funds to account 96 "Reserves forthcoming expenses»Subaccount" Repair fund ". The actual costs of repairing property, plant and equipment are then written off against the provision created.
The third method involves the allocation of actually incurred costs to deferred expenses. In this case, the expenses incurred for the repair of fixed assets are collected on the account "Deferred expenses" subaccount "Repair fund", which are subsequently evenly written off to production costs or sales expenses.
Kondrakov N.P. notes that the third option for accounting for expenses is advisable to use in those organizations of seasonal industries, where the bulk of the cost of repairing fixed assets falls on the first months of the year, when the repair fund has not yet been created.
Kondrakov N.P. also notes that repairs of fixed assets can be carried out in an economic way, that is, by the organization itself, or by a contractual method (by third-party organizations).
Evaluation of work in an economic way is determined by the actual costs of auxiliary industries (repair shops, repair shops), the cost of spare parts and other materials consumed during repairs, salary costs and social insurance contributions for workers engaged in repairs.
The cost of contract work is determined by the amount of invoices issued by contractors and other organizations to pay for the work performed. In turn, the price for this kind of services is determined by agreement of the parties, including on the basis of accepted building codes and prices.
Repair of fixed assets is recommended to be carried out in accordance with the plan, in monetary terms, based on the system of scheduled preventive maintenance, developed by the organization, taking into account the technical characteristics of fixed assets, their operating conditions and other reasons. Scheduled repairs include work on the systematic and timely protection of fixed assets from premature wear and tear and maintaining them in working order. Preventive maintenance lengthens asset life and reduces equipment downtime. Unscheduled repairs are associated with unforeseen circumstances: an accident, sudden stops of mechanisms, etc. ...
Each science has its own subject. The subject of economic analysis is understood as the business processes of enterprises, their socio-economic efficiency and the final financial results of activities, formed under the influence of objective and subjective factors, which are reflected through the system of economic information.
The subject of economic analysis determines the tasks facing it. Among the main authors are O.V. Grishchenko. highlights:
· Increasing the scientific and economic feasibility of business plans, business processes and standards in the process of their development;
· An objective and comprehensive study of the implementation of business plans, business processes and regulatory compliance;
· Determination of the effectiveness of the use of labor and material resources;
· Control over the implementation of commercial settlement requirements;
Identification and measurement of internal reserves at all stages production process;
Optimality check management decisions.
The characteristic features of the method of economic analysis are:
· Definition of a system of indicators that comprehensively characterize the economic activities of organizations;
· Establishing the subordination of indicators with the allocation of cumulative productive factors and factors (main and secondary) influencing them;
· Identification of the form of the relationship between factors;
· The choice of techniques and methods for studying the relationship;
· Quantitative measurement of the influence of factors on the aggregate indicator.
The set of techniques and methods that are used in the study of economic processes constitutes the method of economic analysis.
Fixed assets (often called fixed assets in economic literature and in practice) are one of the most important factors of production.
The analysis of fixed assets is carried out in several directions, the development of which in combination makes it possible to assess the structure, dynamics and efficiency of using fixed assets and long-term investments.
The main directions of the analysis of fixed assets:
· Analysis of the structure and dynamics of fixed assets;
· Analysis of the effectiveness of the use of fixed assets;
· Cost-benefit analysis of equipment maintenance and operation;
· Analysis of the effectiveness of investments in fixed assets.
HELL. Sheremet notes that the structure, dynamics and capital productivity of fixed assets are factors affecting the level of profitability and the financial condition of the organization. The organization is not indifferent to how much of its own funds are invested in fixed assets. In modern conditions, the organization's agility in relation to the use of labor instruments is increasing, the role of credit in the formation of fixed assets is increasing. Fixed assets and long-term investments in fixed assets have a multifaceted and multifaceted impact on the financial results of an enterprise. Specific management needs and the content of management decisions are decisive for the choice of analytical tasks.
2.3 Assessment of the composition, movement and condition of fixed assets
Fixed assets wear out during operation.
According to the current legislation, the fixed assets of the enterprise do not include:
· Items serving less than one year, regardless of their value;
· Fishing gear: trawls, seines, nets, nets, and others, regardless of their cost and service life;
· Replaceable equipment: adaptations to fixed assets repeatedly used in production and other devices caused by specific conditions of production of products - molds and accessories to them, rolling rolls, air molds, shuttles, catalysts and other similar equipment, regardless of their cost;
· Special clothing, special footwear, as well as bedding, regardless of their cost and service life;
· Items intended for rental, regardless of their value;
· Perennial plantings grown in nurseries as planting material.
Distinguish between physical and moral deterioration.
Physical deterioration is expressed in a negative change in the mechanical, physical, chemical and other properties of fixed assets in the form of wear and tear, dilapidation, obsolescence and leads to a loss of consumer qualities and, ultimately, to deterioration economic indicators.
The amount of physical wear is determined through the factor of physical wear:
Or, if it is difficult to determine the performance of an object of fixed assets (building, structure), then by the formula:
where, Ф, Н - actual and standard values \u200b\u200bof indicators;
V, P, T - respectively, the total volume of products manufactured, productivity and service life.
The absolute (in rubles) loss of value is calculated according to the depreciation rate:
(23)
where, S P - the initial book value of the item of fixed assets.
Obsolescence, also called economic, is expressed in the loss of the value of existing fixed assets before the expiration of the period of physical aging due to the appearance of the same, but the most progressive, i.e. cheaper and more productive fixed assets.
There are two forms of obsolescence.
Obsolescence of the first type leads to a decrease in cost due to a reduction in the cost of their reproduction in modern conditions. The relative value of the first moral type K IM1, and its absolute value is determined by the formulas:
(24)
(25)
where, S P and S B - the initial and replacement cost of the fixed assets of the enterprise.
Obsolescence of the second type is caused by the emergence of new, more productive and economic machines. The use of an old machine may be ineffective and it is written off before the date of physical aging. This wear is calculated by the formulas:
(26)
(27)
where, ST and NOV - respectively old and new fixed assets;
P and T - productivity and service life of the machine;
S P - the initial cost of an item of fixed assets.
It is possible to reduce losses from obsolescence by modernization or reconstruction of obsolete fixed assets, as well as by their accelerated depreciation.
Data on the availability, depreciation and movement of fixed assets are the main source of information for assessing the production potential of an enterprise.
Assessment of the movement of fixed assets is carried out on the basis of coefficients that are analyzed in dynamics over a number of years. To assess the movement and condition of fixed assets, the following are calculated relative indicators:
1. Ratio of renewal of fixed assets (K obn):
K obn \u003d (28)
2. Term of renewal of fixed assets (T obn):
T obn \u003d (29)
3. Ratio of disposal of fixed assets (K in):
Group, the results of the calculation will be diametrically opposite - the coefficient of uniformity of the development of trade will be equal to 77.04. Chapter 3. Activities and suggestions for improvement financial condition OOO Alliance The analysis of OOO Alliance showed that the company is in a stable financial position, but has insufficient liquidity of assets. Despite...
State and municipal property (6.3%). Gratuitous receipts amounted to 40.9 billion rubles, or 13.0% of the total budget revenues of St. Petersburg. The budget of St. Petersburg also received income from entrepreneurial and other income-generating activities in the amount of 30.1 billion rubles, the share of which was 9.5%. Budget expenditures of St. Petersburg for 2009 ...
Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation
Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution
Higher professional education
"Siberian State Automobile and Highway Academy"
Department of Real Estate and Construction Business
Course work
in the discipline "Estimation of the cost of machines, equipment
and vehicles "
Completed by student gr. EUNs-06-06:
Ivanova Maria Mikhailovna
Adopted Art. Lecturer of the Department of NSS
Tishkov Evgeny Vladimirovich
Introduction ………………………………………………………………………… ..3
1. Basic concepts and definitions …………………………………………… 5
2. The main approaches and methods for assessing the cost of machinery, equipment, vehicles ………………………………………………… ..7
2.1. Cost approach to estimating the cost of machinery, equipment, vehicles ………………………………………………………………… .7
2.2. Comparative approach to assessing the cost of machinery, equipment, vehicles …………………………………………………………………… 8
2.3. Income approach to appraising the cost of machinery, equipment, vehicles ……………………………………………………. ……… ..10
3. Analysis of the Toyota Ist car market for 2012 ………. …………………..eleven
4. Determination of the market value of the car ………………… ................ 13
4.1. Description of the object of assessment ………………………………………………… ..13
4.2. Determination of market value using …………………… 12
4.3. Agreeing the results …………………………………………………. 18
Conclusion ……………………………………………………………………… .20
List of used literature …………………………………………… ..21
1. Basic concepts and definitions.
2. Basic approaches and methods for assessing the cost of machinery, equipment, vehicles.
2.1. Cost-based approach to assessing the cost of machinery, equipment, vehicles.
Introduction.
Currently, valuation activity is actively developing - one of the most important institutions of the modern market economy and the rule of law. It is necessary for the formation of normal economic and legal relations in society, as well as ensuring a legitimate and civilized economic turnover of objects of property rights. In road transport complex of Russia, the main type of assets of which are motor vehicles, the need for their valuation is constantly increasing due to the stable increase in the level of motorization in the country.
The purpose of the course work is to determine the market value of the vehicle.
The object is the vehicle Toyota Ist, state number: A777AA, year of issue: December 2005
Tasks for solving this goal:
Research the car market for the second half of 2012
Study approaches to the assessment of machinery, equipment;
To achieve the most accurate assessment of machinery and equipment, it is necessary to use three main approaches: cost, profitable and comparative. These approaches are considered in this work with a specific example. Compare the estimates obtained on the basis of these approaches and reduce the resulting cost estimates to a single cost of the object of assessment.
This course work is aimed at developing skills and abilities in determining the value of a vehicle.
Movable property - things not related to real estate by law, including money and securities.
Car -- technical deviceperforming mechanical movements to transform energy, materials and information.
Equipment - technical means technologies necessary for the implementation and maintenance.
Technology - in a broad sense - a set of methods, processes and materials used in any branch of activity, as well as a scientific description of methods of technical production; narrowly - a set of organizational measures, operations and techniques aimed at manufacturing, maintenance, repair and / or operation of a product with nominal quality and optimal costs, and due to the current level of development of science, technology and society as a whole.
Vehicle - a device designed or used for the carriage (transportation) of people or goods.
Price - the monetary expression of the value of the goods, the amount of money that the buyer pays and the seller receives for the goods sold.
Market value - the most probable price at which a given object can be alienated on the open market in a competitive environment, when the parties to the transaction act reasonably, having the necessary information, and no extraordinary circumstances are reflected in the transaction price.
Reproduction cost - the amount of costs in market prices existing f on the date assessing, to create an object identical to the object of assessment, using identical materials and technologies, taking into account! depreciation of the object of assessment. The total cost of reproduction can be determined either at the prices effective at the time of assessment "for an identical object. For machines, equipment and vehicles, an object of the same model, modification and execution as the object being evaluated is considered identical. Or this cost is determined by one of the methods of the cost approach. The depreciation impairment is then deducted from the estimated full cost to give the residual value.
Replacement cost - the sum of the costs of creating an object similar to the object of appraisal at market prices existing at the date of the appraisal, taking into account the depreciation of the appraisal object. It can be seen from the definition that the replacement cost of an object is obtained when its estimate is made by comparison with similar objects for which prices are known. Typically, the replacement cost is calculated first as full, i.e. excluding depreciation impairment by comparison with new similar items and then as residual, i.e. deduction from the received full cost of depreciation.
Replacement cost - the amount of costs that would have to be incurred by the enterprise owning fixed assets if it completely replaced this object with a similar object at market prices and tariffs existing at the date of the revaluation, including the costs of acquisition (construction, manufacturing), transportation and installation of the object ... It should be noted that the replacement cost does not take into account the depreciation of the object.
Investment value - the value of the appraisal object, determined on the basis of its profitability for a specific person for given investment purposes. The investment value is determined in relation to a specific investment project. One and the same object may have different investment values \u200b\u200bfor different projects. This will depend on the effectiveness of the projects, their degree of risk and the required return on the part of the investor.
Initial cost - the sum of the actual costs of the enterprise for the acquisition, construction and manufacture of the object as of the date of its registration. When revaluating fixed assets, the original cost is replaced by the replacement (full replacement) cost.
Cost price - expressed in monetary form, the set of costs for the production and sale of products.
Physical deterioration - loss of value of the object as a result of deterioration of its original properties over time and during operation.
Functional wear - loss of facility value as a result of insufficient capacity, excessive operating costs, production imbalance, etc.
Economic wear and tear - it is the loss of value due to the impact of macroeconomic factors.
The cost approach is a method of property valuation based on determining the cost of creating, changing and disposing of property, taking into account all types of wear and tear. The cost approach implements the principle of substitution, which means that the buyer does not pay more for the finished object than for the created object of the same utility.
The cost-based approach is most successfully used when evaluating re-equipped, exclusive, rare motor vehicles (AMTS), their components. In addition, the cost-based approach is successfully used to adjust the cost of objects that have minor damage (defects) or have additional equipment or in the absence of some elements of the basic configuration (incompleteness).
The cost of the appraisal objects is determined by the cost approach using the following methods:
aggregate (element-wise) calculation;
price indexation;
calculation at the price of a homogeneous object.
2.2. Comparative approach to assessing the cost of machinery, equipment, vehicles.
Aggregate (element-by-element) calculation is used in cases where the evaluated object can be assembled from composite elements.
The essence of determining the cost of AMTS, their components using price indexation is to bring the cost of objects to the current price level using corrective indices.
The calculation of the cost at the price of a homogeneous object is carried out using the selection for the evaluated object of a similar, similar in design, materials used and manufacturing technology.
Comparative an approach - a set of methods for assessing the value of the appraised object (object), based on a comparison of the appraisal object with similar objects, in relation to which there is information about the prices of transactions with them.
The comparative approach is most preferable in comparison with other approaches in determining the market value of automatic telephone exchanges and their components, including emergency, non-recoverable, large-scale and mass production, which, as a rule, have a developed market, which makes it possible for an appraiser to choose a sufficient quantity according to statistical criteria. analogs. The comparative approach is most effective when using statistical methods in collecting and processing value information.
When determining the market value of the property being evaluated, the following information is usually used:
purchase and sale prices;
prices from periodicals and price lists;
prices from reference and analytical publications.
The information obtained is processed using various statistical methods (correlation, variance, regression analyzes, etc.) in order to determine the statistical dependencies between the price of the subject of assessment and the parameters that affect the price.
The most preferable information, from the point of view of reliability, is the prices of sales and purchases. However, such information is not readily available, therefore, the prices of reference and analytical and periodicals, price lists, adjusted properly using the appropriate methods, are mainly used.
The following types of amendments are used:
for technical comparability;
differences in terms of sale;
for temporal comparability;
for the difference in equipment.
Corrections for technical comparability. To determine the value of the amendment, the relationship between prices and parameters of the object of assessment is used.
technical condition;
standard size (engine power, carrying capacity, etc.);
Adjusting for differences in sales conditions means bringing the prices of all found analogues to the same commercial sales conditions. There are the following types of amendments:
for bargaining;
- for delivery times;
- on the terms of payment (advance payments, cash payment, installment payment, credit, mixed payment).
MINISTRY OF BRANCH OF RUSSIA
FEDERAL STATE BUDGETED EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION
HIGHER EDUCATION
"VORONEZH STATE UNIVERSITY"
(FGBOU VO "VSU")
Faculty of Economics
Department of Accounting and Auditing
COURSE WORK
In the discipline "Methods for assessing assets and liabilities"
On the topic: "Methods for assessing the cost of materials"
Direction 38.03.01 "Economics"
Day department
Coursework Supervisor
candidate of Economic Sciences, Assoc. Lavrukhina T.A.
Coursework fulfilled
1st year student of group 6 Mukhardimov A.R.
Voronezh 2016
Introduction …………………………………………………………………….… 3
Chapter 1. Theoretical approaches to the definition of the concept of "assessment" ... ... .. ... .3
1.1 Concept, essence, goals, principles of assessment ……………………………… 9
1.2 Historical stages in the development of valuation: world experience …… .8
1.3 Legal regulation of valuation in Russia ... 9
Chapter 2. Approaches to Understanding Initial and Subsequent Assessment of Assets …………………………………………………………………………… 78
2.1 Initial assessment (on the example of intangible assets) ……… .00
2.2 Subsequent assessment (on the example of intangible assets) ………… .00
Conclusion ……………………………………………………………………… 00
List of sources used ………………………………………… 00
Introduction
Due to the variety of business operations, it becomes necessary to develop generalizing indicators that would allow comparing and bringing together in a single balance heterogeneous accounting objects, such as fixed assets, materials, goods, finished products, accounts payable, loans, etc.
This task can be solved only by using monetary meters in the assessment of property, liabilities and business transactions.
Valuation is based on two elements of the accounting method: valuation and calculation. In our work, we will take a closer look at the first element of the method - assessment. Actually, a deeper emphasis on this concept will form the main goal of our work: to find out what a valuation in a BU is.
The relevance of my research is not lost at the present time, since valuation activity is important both for the development of market relations and for reforming the economy as a whole.
To achieve the goal, the following tasks were set:
1) consider the concept of "assessment", its essence, determine the basic principles and goals.
2) identify the trend in the development of valuation at different historical stages of development, using world experience as an example.
3) indicate with the help of which main legal sources the valuation activity in the Russian Federation is regulated.
4) consider in detail the initial valuation using the example of intangible assets.
5) consider in detail the subsequent assessment of assets using the example of intangible assets.
In carrying out the work, various sources were used, including federal laws, computer legal reference systems, textbooks and other sources.
Chapter 1. Theoretical approaches to the definition of "assessment".
1.1 Concept, essence, goals, principles of assessment.
Evaluation is a way of expressing in monetary terms the property of an enterprise and its sources. The reality and correctness of the assessment of the property of the enterprise and its sources are essential for the construction of the entire accounting system. Property valuation is based on real costs expressed in monetary terms.
For the sake of comparability, the valuation of property and its sources for reflection in the balance sheet should be carried out uniformly at all enterprises, which is achieved by observing the established provisions and valuation rules.
Accounting is designed to form information about the activities of the organization and its property status in various economic conditions, while any phenomena of economic life are subject to cost measurement. The assessment covers all business processes occurring at the enterprise, namely: in the production process, the products received are evaluated; in the process of distribution - income from the sale of these products (goods, works, services); in the exchange process - manufacturing costs production stocks and the acquisition of means of labor costs incurred from the sale, as well as arising liabilities (accounts receivable and payable). Accordingly, the determination of the value of the assets of the organization (enterprise), both received from outside and created in the production process, and the value of the financial result formed from their use and sale, depends on the accuracy of the accounting estimate, that is, with the help of the assessment, objects are registered and disposed of from the property. Thus, the assessment covers the entire accounting process, from current accounting to reporting, and it is not accidental that the monetary value has become one of the most important elements of the accounting method.
Economic transformations in our country, the formation and development of a market economy have led to the reform of the accounting system as a whole. The reform process required a revision of the functional role and place of valuation in accounting, primarily due to the use of free prices in the country's economy, which made it necessary to legally allow new types of value and methods of their calculation and provide enterprises with the opportunity to choose them. However, the assessment options proposed by regulatory documents still do not solve the problems of accounting practice and do not meet the requirements of users, which is confirmed by numerous facts of violation of the established assessment rules, unreasonable, from the point of view of economic feasibility, the choice of the assessment option. It seems that as an element of the accounting method, valuation requires deeper research in terms of solving the problems facing accounting.
The purpose of valuation in accounting is to formulate the main tasks that can be solved using the first. The purpose of the assessment is:
a) full and correct name of the object of assessment;
b) the type of assets that are being evaluated;
c) the type of property rights that are being evaluated;
d) date of assessment.
Therefore, the choice of an adequate assessment and the avoidance of errors in assessing the assets and liabilities of the enterprise depend on the correctness of the goal.
Let's try to consider in more detail the assessment as an element of the accounting method.
Different sources define this element of the accounting method differently. Some define valuation as a way of expressing business transactions in monetary terms, others as a way of solving in monetary unit the costs of living and materialized labor invested in certain types means and processes. Price as a monetary expression of value is a basic category in the valuation of assets and business transactions. Any price consists of the following elements:
1) the cost of sales;
2) overhead costs (administrative, sales, etc.);
3) profits; taxes; trade margins (discounts).
The basis for the formation of the manufacturer's price is the cost of production. Determining the cost is the prerogative of the managerial persona. The basis for assessing household assets is based on wholesale, retail, weighted average, estimated, accounting and other prices. The most common are wholesale and retail prices. Wholesale prices are the prices at which an enterprise sells its products to other enterprises, sales or trading firms. The wholesale price of the enterprise includes: cost of sales, overhead costs, profits and taxes. Retail prices are the prices at which goods are sold to consumers. They include the wholesale price of the enterprise and the trade mark-up (discount) for the purpose of spending.
The accounting theory sets the basic requirements for the assessment, ensuring the correct reflection of accounting objects and the reliability of the assessment. These requirements include: reality (adequacy), unity and purposefulness of the assessment.
The reality (adequacy) of the assessment ensures the objective correspondence of the monetary expression of the accounting objects to their actual value, the reflection in the monetary meter of the actual value of economic assets and operations. The adequacy of the assessment requires accurate calculation of the actual cost of all accounting items by means of inventory and revaluation.
The unity of the assessment ensures uniformity and invariability of the assessment over a long period of time and across all business entities (enterprises, organizations, institutions). Unity of assessment is achieved by establishing mandatory provisions (standards), instructions, accounting and calculation rules.
The system of valuation used in accounting is multifunctional. Assessment in accounting is necessary in the course of economic activity: upon receipt and disposal of assets, upon the emergence of rights and obligations, during operations such as purchase and sale, lease of property, mortgage, insurance, investment, revaluation of assets, upon creation, connection, liquidation enterprises, in the exercise of the right of inheritance, the execution of a judgment, etc. This circumstance explains the existence of various monetary values: economic, legal, expert, statistical, insurance (actuarial).
1.2 Historical stages in the development of valuation: world experience
Evaluation of accounting objects is important to obtain objective information about the economic and financial position of the organization. When deciding on methods of assessment in modern conditions, one should be aware of how these issues were solved earlier. In this paragraph, we will consider the historical aspects of valuation in accounting at the level of world experience. Let us present a retrospective of this issue, starting from the XIII century in various countries - Italy, France, Great Britain, Germany, Holland, the USA, etc., and also consider different points of view on assessment issues.
For the correct solution of the issues of evaluating accounting objects, it is important to make an excursion into the history of this problem.
Initially, in the early stages of the development of commodity production, with the development of the social division of labor, there was a need to evaluate the goods that were exchanged among themselves: the commodity expressed its value in the opposing commodity. Then, as it develops social production the first forms of "money" appeared: among hunters - furs, among farmers - grain, among shepherd tribes - cattle, etc., but they did not have universality. For example, in Egypt it was grain. “They did not know coins or a single equivalent in Egypt. Therefore, after the inventory was compiled, the harvested grain was recalculated into a conditional yield corresponding to harvesting from the land at the highest yield rate, which made it possible to make the data of different farms comparable and bring data across the country. "
The appearance of money in the form of coins facilitated the exchange of goods and was a major step in the evolution of exchange transactions, also in the development of accounting, in particular, valuation. “Money acted first as an independent object of accounting, then as a means in settlements (all accounts were kept in money) and, finally, as a measure of value; they began to measure all the inventory. " Money, serving as a measure of value, measures the value of goods. "The value of a thing, expressed in money, is its price." Previously, money was accounted for by metal and weight, then by types of coins, now a legislatively secured monetary unit is used, with which the amount of money and the price of goods are measured.
The monetary assessment made it possible to generalize the heterogeneous facts of economic life, group accounting objects and operations, and obtain systemic information. There was a transition from natural accounting to cost accounting. But until the 13th century, money remained the same commodity as products and instruments of labor; not all objects of accounting were subjected to cost measurement. The development of accounting in the Middle Ages in Western Europe took place in monasteries, tk. the power of the church grew at that time and monasteries became the center of education. In the Middle Ages, fair prices were first mentioned, the main ideologist of which was the philosopher Thomas Aquinas (XIII century). “Fair price is the cost plus the margin that provides a standard minimum living for the seller. If the seller overestimates the fair price, he profits; if he underestimates, then he becomes poorer.
The emergence of monetary valuation served as the basis for the emergence of a double entry. The first step was that some business transactions by themselves were reflected twice: when goods were sold, they were written off in kind, and money came in. Then the goods themselves began to be reflected twice: in kind and in monetary terms.
However, in the opinion of Sokolov Ya. V. and Sokolov V. Ya. double-entry bookkeeping could not have appeared earlier than the XIII century. This is evidenced by numerous facts:
- until that time money was not widespread;
- of all the functions of money, the function of a means of payment prevailed;
- for many centuries, not quantitative, but qualitative ideas prevailed in human psychology.
The introduction of a single monetary measure was the greatest revolution, for the reduction of many objects and no less set of currencies to a single measure led to much greater conventions in economic information than it was before. But this convention has created an opportunity for: a) constructing a system of accounts and b) comparing and evaluating all the aggregates of values, rights and obligations included in the concept of the subject of accounting.
The founder of the double entry, the Renaissance scholar Luca Pacioli mentions the reflection in the accounting of goods at the current selling maximum price: “... moreover, you will set the usual prices for all things. The latter should be better assigned higher than lower, for example, if it seems to you that the thing is worth 10, then say 14, so that you will be better at profit ”. This approach led to an overstatement of capital and a decrease in profits. At the same time, L. Pacioli recommended a cost estimate (actual cost) in relation to the exchange of goods: “Having made a note, you must express the exchange in money, that is, how to assume buying and selling for cash, and, depending on what, in your opinion, the value of the goods, take such a price as a basis ”. Luca Pacioli formulated the rules for checking the reliability of settlements with debtors: "... You cannot consider anyone a debtor (debtor) without his knowledge, even if it turned out to be expedient ...".
Thus, in the Middle Ages in Italy, two types of assessments were predominantly widespread: at the acquisition price (historical) and at the selling price (market). At the same time, in Germany, for many years, only conjuncture (market) valuation was used.
In France in the 19th century, during the development of industry and the formation of industrial accounting, the idea of \u200b\u200bchoosing and justifying an assessment was hotly debated.
In 1860, Guilbeaux proposed a permanent account of the sale of goods, which was called permanent inventory. By this concept, he understood the constant historical assessment of accounting objects.
J. B. Say, Dubock, Wooland, Bullot were supporters of the assessment at current prices. The cost estimate was defended by Lavelle, Lefebvre, Perrault. Some authors have tried to defend both estimates at once. For example, Lamy favored appraising items at cost if they were not depreciated or worn out, and recommended resorting to current appraisal if items lost their value.
In accounting, materials are received at actual prices, and written off at current prices. Quinet, Guilbeaux and others saw this as a serious drawback, since the commensurability of assessment for debit and credit of the same account was not observed. Courcelles-Senel, on the other hand, considered it an advantage, because this account made it possible to clearly distinguish between production profit and market profit.
At the same time, evaluation research problems were dealt with and
german scientists. The literature on balance for the first 40-50 years was engaged in
precisely by questions of evaluation.
The father of German balance studies I.F.Sher (1846-1914) considered the assessment to be the main point in the reality of balance. Based on the principle of conservatism, he proposed an estimate based on the minimum prices: the lowest estimate for the current date (either the cost price or the selling price) is taken for accounting. But this led to the formation of hidden reserves and, as Cher himself admitted, turns into falsification.
E. Schmalenbach (1873-1955) offered the valuation of fixed assets at the purchase price, materials and finished products - at the minimum price.
At a time when accounting was reformed in Soviet Russia, in the United States and English-speaking countries, the question of the nature of the Capital account for the American William Andrew Paton and the Englishman Francis Pickley and their followers divided the researchers in the field of accounting into personalists and institutionalists. The personalists argued that the Capital account reflects the accounts payable of the enterprise to its owner. Institutionalists, on the other hand, did not make such an identification and believed that debt and capital should not be confused.
Thus, the study of the historical development of the assessment made it possible to identify its next stages of development (Table 1.1)
| Stage name | Period | Description of the stage, basic provisions |
| Naturalistic | Until the VII century. BC e. | The evaluation of goods was carried out according to the value of the exchanged goods: the goods expressed their value in the opposing goods. Then some commodities began to serve as the equivalent of money: grain, fur, livestock, etc. |
| The origin and spread of monetary value | VII century. BC e. - XI century. n. e. | The advent of money in the form of coins facilitated the exchange of goods. At first, money acted as an independent accounting object, then - as a means in calculations. |
| Dissemination of market and historical assessments | XII - XV centuries | The emergence of monetary valuation served as the basis for the emergence of a double entry. In Italy, two types of valuations have gained preference for valuing goods: purchase price (historical) and market price. |
Continuation of table 1.1
Tab. 1.1 Historical milestones in the development of assessment
The example of the assessment shows that behind each methodological technique are the interests of certain groups. Personalists expressed the interests of suppliers, creditors, shareholders. They were not worried about how much the administration was spending, but how much the property of this enterprise actually cost today, they demanded a revaluation. Institutionalists defended the interests of the owner. They argued that balance serves internal goals enterprise management, the administration of the enterprise must know how much the funds reflected in the balance sheet cost the enterprise, and have a correctly defined, actual result of its economic activity.
Nevertheless, disputes about the priority of one or another method of evaluating objects of accounting supervision, which began almost from the very origins of accounting, continue to this day.
1.3 Valuation Regulations in Russia
According to Art. 1 No. 135-FZ "On appraisal activities in the Russian Federation "," Valuation activities are carried out in accordance with international treaties of the Russian Federation, this Federal Law, as well as other federal laws and other regulatory legal acts Of the Russian Federation, which regulate relations arising in the course of valuation activities. "
Article 71 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation defines the subjects of jurisdiction of the Russian Federation and subjects that are under the joint jurisdiction of the Russian Federation and its subjects. Issues resolved exclusively at the federal level include: the adoption and amendment of the Constitution and federal laws; federal structure and territory; protection of human and civil rights and freedoms; citizenship in the Russian Federation, etc. In the jurisdiction of the Russian Federation and its subjects are such issues as the delimitation of state property; nature management; security environment and ensuring environmental safety; specially protected natural areas; protection of historical and cultural monuments. Outside of the jurisdiction of the Russian Federation and its powers in matters of joint jurisdiction of the Russian Federation and the constituent entities of the Russian Federation, the constituent entities of the Russian Federation have full state power.
Along with federal and local legislation, the system of state regulation of appraisal activities includes the corresponding by-laws. Often there is a need to know not only the rules and regulations in force throughout the territory of the Russian Federation, but also the specific rates of local taxes, or the amount of the registration fee for registering real estate, or the amount of the fee for registering as an entrepreneur.
At the federal level, two state standards of the Russian Federation act as methodological documents: "Unified Property Valuation System" (ESOI); "Basic provisions. Terms and definitions".
The Unified Property Valuation System (ESOI) operates in accordance with the economic conditions of developing market relations and the management structure in the Russian Federation on the basis of the current legislation, norms and rules of the state standardization system.
The main purpose of the normative documents of the ESOI is to protect the interests of the state and the rights of consumers while granting independence and initiative to organizations, enterprises and specialists engaged in valuation activities.
The provisions of the main regulatory documents of the ESOI can be used in the development of standards for industries, societies and enterprises.
The provisions of the ESOI standards are subject to application by all located on the territory of the Russian Federation government bodies management, business entities that have a direct and (or) indirect relationship to property valuation.
Along with this Federal Law, these standards create a unified regulatory framework for the development of valuation activities in Russia. A unified terminology, rules, procedures and traditions of interaction between customers and appraisers, unified approaches to the performance of work on the assessment and presentation of their results are being formed. However, as always, with the emergence of a system of normative documents prepared in different time and various authors, the problem of their consistency arises. In particular, the definitions of the basic concepts in this Law and in the Standard on Terminology (GOST R 51.195.0.02-98) are not always consistent with each other. In cases of discrepancy, priority should be given to the Law.
According to Russian GOST:
"Appraisal of property - determination of the value of property in accordance with the stated purpose, the appraisal procedure and the requirements of the appraiser's ethics."
For example, the Moscow Law provides more detailed wording:
"Appraisal activity is understood as a set of relations of a legal, economic, organizational, technical and other nature to establish market or other value (collateral, liquidation and other) in relation to the appraisal objects. , licensing, control over the activities of appraisers and the application of measures of responsibility.
Appraisal is the process of determining the quality, value or usefulness of the appraisal object, which can be implemented in the form of forming the opinion of a professional appraiser regarding the value of the appraisal object without making calculations and justifications analysis or review of real estate markets without a conclusion about the value of a particular object of assessment in monetary terms; calculating the value of the object of appraisal with the determination of its value in monetary terms with a corresponding study of the situation in the real estate markets, providing justifications for the applied methods and rules.
1
Within the framework of this article, an analysis of the existing interpretations of the essence of the concepts of "fixed assets", "fixed assets" and "fixed assets" is presented, which are reflected in modern publications of specialists in various fields of economics, legislative and regulatory legal acts of the Russian Federation, a comparative description of the concepts is carried out and objective reasons for their confusion in modern economic practice. The author also examines current and practical approaches to the classification of material fixed assets: by industry, by purpose in the production process, by the method of impact on objects of labor, grouping in accordance with PBU 6 "Accounting for fixed assets", by the degree of use in the production process , according to the possession of rights to objects, classification into movable and immovable property.
fixed assets
fixed assets
main capital
1. Microeconomics. Practical approach (Managerial Economics): textbook / A.G. Gryaznova, A.Yu. Yudanov and others - M .: KnoRus, 2017 .-- 682 p.
2. Resolution of the Gosstandart of the Russian Federation of December 26, 1994 No. 359 "On the adoption of the All-Russian classifier of fixed assets (OK 013-94)".
3. Order of Rosstandart of 12.12.2014 No. 2018-st "On the adoption and implementation of the All-Russian classifier of fixed assets OK 013-2014 (SNA 2008)".
4. Taylor L.D. Capital, Accumulation and Money: an Integration of Capital, Growth, and Monetary Theory / Lester D. Taylor. - 2nd edn. - Springer, 2013 .-- 278 p.
5. Vitokhina O.A., Slabinsky D.V. The concepts of "fixed assets", "fixed capital" and "fixed assets" in Russia and abroad / О.А. Vitokhina, D.V. Slabinsky // Bulletin of the Belgorod University of Consumer Cooperatives, 2005, No. 5. - P. 79–84.
6. Order of the Ministry of Finance of the Russian Federation of March 30, 2001 No. 26n "On approval of the Accounting Regulations" Accounting for fixed assets "PBU 6/01".
7. Order of the Ministry of Finance of the Russian Federation of 13.10.2003 No. 91n "On approval of the Methodological guidelines for the accounting of fixed assets".
8. IFRS (IAS) 16 "Fixed Assets" (came into force in the Russian Federation by Order of the Ministry of Finance of Russia dated December 28, 2015 No. 217n).
9. Application of IFRS: at 3 o'clock (translated from English) / Ernst & Young (EY). - 7th ed., Rev. and add. - M .: Alpina Publishers, 2017 .-- 3220 p.
10. Shokhin E.I. Corporate finance: textbook / ed. Shokhina E.I. - M .: KnoRus, 2016 .-- 318 p.
11. Savitskaya G.V. Comprehensive analysis of the economic activity of the enterprise: Textbook / G.V. Savitskaya. - 6th ed., Rev. and add. - M .: NITs Infra-M, 2013 .-- 607 p.
12. Civil Code of the Russian Federation (part one) dated 30.11.1994 No. 51-FZ.
At the same time, the concept of "fixed assets" is used in such areas as accounting and tax accounting, and the term "fixed assets" - in statistics, economic theory and economic analysis.
The concept of "fixed assets" in the English professional terminological space does not have a clear distinction with the term "fixed assets", since When determining the unit of accounting for fixed assets in the Russian accounting system, the property approach is used, while in foreign accounting practice, the financial approach is used.
The cornerstone of the modern economy is the cycle of extended reproduction of competitive goods and services, which, according to the postulates of economic theory, is a closed system of four transformational links - the stages of production, distribution, exchange and consumption. The basis of such a system is the production process, in turn determined by various factors, among which the means of labor, which are part of such concepts as "land" and "capital", used by the modern economic school, play an important role. The relationship between the categories "means of labor", "land" and "capital" is shown in Fig. 1.
The means of labor, according to K. Marx, are a thing (a complex of things), placed by a person between himself and the object of labor and serving as a conductor of his influences on this object.
There is a point of view that, unlike objects of labor and work force as such, requiring renewal in each production cycle, means of labor are characterized by repeated use in the process of manufacturing products (performing work, rendering services) in an invariable natural-material form. In the author's opinion, this interpretation cannot be considered correct due to the fact that in the original source (K. Marx "Capital. Critique of Political Economy. Volume III" (1894)) there is no direct indication of the life of the asset, and therefore the means of labor may be included in property of an economic entity with a turnover of less than one operating cycle - elements attributed to the material component of working capital. In other words, the authors of this definition unreasonably identify the means of labor with one of the forms of their existence - the main funds of the organization, the analysis of the essence of which is part of the object of this study.
In economic practice, the term "fixed assets" is often confused with concepts such as "fixed assets" and "fixed capital", which de facto carry different meanings. For the purposes of this study, fixed capital should be understood as a financial category reflecting a part of the company's funds, on an ongoing basis and for a long time invested in its fixed assets - a part of the company's property used in its activities during several reproduction cycles. This type of capital is reflected in the liabilities of the balance sheet of an economic entity and is formed through two types of sources:
Sources directed to the acquisition and creation of fixed assets of newly formed organizations;
Sources of simple and extended reproduction of fixed assets of functioning organizations (see Appendix 1).
A similar approach to the interpretation of the concept of "fixed assets" underlies the construction of the All-Russian classifier of fixed assets OK 013-94 and its new version, OK 013-2014 (SNA 2008), which was put into effect on January 1, 2017, according to the provisions of which fixed assets are produced assets that are repeatedly or continuously used for the production of goods, the provision of market and non-market services for an extended period of time exceeding twelve calendar months. Within the framework of this definition, there is no clear indication of the tangible form of an asset, which gives reason to classify fixed assets into tangible and intangible
(see fig. 2).
Figure: 2. Classification of fixed assets in OKOF
The identification of the terms “fixed assets” and “fixed capital” is primarily due to the difference in approaches to the essential interpretation of the category “capital” (see Table 1).
Table 1
Approaches to the essential interpretation of the category "capital"
|
The essence |
|
|
Economic |
Based on the physical concept of capital. Capital is divided into: real (embodied in material goods) and financial (embodied in funds, their equivalents and financial instruments) |
|
Accounting (implemented at the micro level) |
Based on financial concept capital, asserting that capital is net assets, the value of which is equal to the difference between the sum of the assets of the organization and the value of its liabilities |
|
Mixed |
Modification of physical and financial concepts Capital is considered simultaneously from two positions: directions of investment (does not exist as an independent ephemeral substance, but is clothed in a physical form); sources of formation. Relevant types of capital: active - the production capacity of the organization, presented in the asset of the balance sheet as the main and circulating part (from the accounting position, in order to avoid confusion, instead of the term “asset”, the term “funds” is used); passive - own and borrowed long-term sources of financing |
Source: .
It is advisable to consider the concept of "fixed capital" from the position of a mixed approach. Proceeding from this, according to the author, in the process of circulation, fixed capital is bifurcated, simultaneously appearing both in the form of active (real) capital and in a passive form formed as a result of the distribution of the value of fixed assets through depreciation.
The forms of manifestation of fixed capital in its material active part are:
Functioning fixed production and non-production assets;
Unfinished construction objects - unfinished buildings, structures and other types of construction and installation works;
Uninstalled equipment for installation and commissioning;
Fixed assets accepted for operation, but mothballed and undergoing modernization (reconstruction);
Fixed assets in pledged transactions, etc.
Fixed assets, in turn, represent the value of the material fixed assets of the organization and an integral element of non-current assets reflected in its balance sheet. Thus, the concept of “fixed assets” used in Russian accounting practice should be interpreted as tangible carriers of fixed assets and considered as a synonym for the term “tangible fixed assets” (see Fig. 3).
One of the prerequisites for mixing the above categories is the attempts of Russian specialists in various fields of economics to adapt English terms in the framework of translation of publications of scientific works of foreign colleagues, accounting standards and titles of articles of financial statements. foreign companies... In the course of the research, an analytical review of Russian and English-language sources was carried out, offering definitions of the analogs of the triad "fixed assets" - "fixed assets" - "fixed assets" most often used in foreign economic literature, according to the results of which the author came to the conclusion that an unjustified confusion These concepts are a widespread phenomenon not only in Russian, but also in foreign accounting practice, arising due to the difference in approaches to determining the accounting unit of fixed assets (see Table 2).
The author offers the analogs most appropriate to the economic content of the analyzed terms: material fixed assets (fixed assets) - fixed (tangible) assets, capital assets (capital goods); fixed capital.
Within the framework of the raised problem of adaptation of foreign professional vocabulary to Russian accounting terminology, it should be noted that the official translation of IAS 16 made, from the author's point of view, an incorrect replacement of the original category “property, plant and equipment” (real estate, machinery and equipment ), which most accurately characterizes the scope of the standard, the generalized concept of "fixed assets" (for details, see Fig. 4).
Figure: 3. Differentiation of the categories "material fixed assets", "fixed assets" and "fixed capital"
table 2
Accounting unit of fixed assets
|
Accounting system |
The name of the accounting unit and the content of the concept |
|
(p. 6 PBU 6/01, clause 10 of the Methodological Guidelines) property approach |
Inventory object is a separate structurally separate property object designed to perform certain functions, or a complex of structurally articulated objects (several objects of the same or different functional purpose, having general management, general accessories and devices capable of performing their functions only as part of a complex), designed to perform a certain work |
|
IAS 16 financial approach |
Component - the sum of costs that can bring economic benefits to the organization in the future and are accounted for immediately as fixed assets, regardless of the stage of readiness of the object, which can be depreciated separately. The economic entity chooses the accounting unit independently |
Sources:.
Figure: 4. Spheres of application of RAS for accounting of items of property, plant and equipment and IAS 16
On the basis of the approach formed by the author to the definition of the above triad of concepts, it is considered expedient to carry out a classification of material fixed assets. Thus, their grouping by industry (industry, agriculture, transport, etc.) has a purely statistical focus, allowing the formation of data on their value within the framework of a particular type of economic activity.
According to their purpose, the material fixed assets of organizations in the real sector of the economy are divided into production and non-production (see Fig. 5).
Figure: 5. Material fixed assets as intended in the production process
According to the method of influencing the objects of labor, it is customary to distinguish between the active and passive parts of the material fixed production assets. The first category includes those funds that are directly involved in the production process and include such varieties as machines, machine tools, technological lines, other equipment, computers and production tools. The role of passive ones is to create and maintain conditions for the implementation of the production process (these include, for example, buildings and structures for industrial purposes, transmission devices (water pipes, gas pipelines, etc.) and land). Such detailing is necessary to identify reserves for increasing the efficiency of using fixed assets by optimizing their structure.
The classification of fixed assets by type is disclosed in clause 5 of PBU 6/01 "Accounting for fixed assets" and clause 3 of the Methodological Guidelines for the accounting of fixed assets and completely duplicates the composition of tangible fixed assets presented in OKOF OK 013-94. At the same time, to characterize the state of working machines and equipment, devices and tools, in practice, they are grouped according to technical suitability: an object suitable for operation; unusable and subject to write-off; demanding overhaul.
Based on the provisions of Art. 130, 132 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation, tangible fixed assets can be classified into movable and immovable property (see Fig. 6).
According to the degree of use in the production process, material fixed assets are divided into those located:
Directly in operation;
In stock (reserve) - items of fixed assets acquired in accordance with the requirements of the regulatory legal acts of the Russian Federation to ensure the uninterrupted and safe operation of production facilities, intended to replace failed fixed assets (for example, a safety stock of generating equipment in the power industry used to maintain uninterrupted operation of the power system in conditions of unforeseen peak loads);
At the stage:
Completions (construction of new parts inseparable from the object of fixed assets without causing damage to it);
Additional equipment (additions to an object of fixed assets with previously absent elements (parts, mechanisms, aggregates), leading to the appearance of new properties and qualities in it (clause 2 of article 257 of the Tax Code of the Russian Federation));
Figure: 6. Division of tangible fixed assets into movable and immovable property
Reconstruction (reorganization of the object of fixed assets in connection with the improvement of the production process to expand capacities, increase the quantity and quality of products (clause 2 of article 257 of the Tax Code of the Russian Federation));
Modernization (improvement of an object, leading to a change in its technical and economic indicators: purpose, scope of use, workload);
Partial liquidation (derecognition of a component part (or several parts) of an object);
On conservation (operation of which has been terminated for any period with the possibility of its renewal).
Another classification feature is the existence of rights to fixed assets, on the basis of which it is customary to classify them into:
Belonging to an economic entity by right of ownership (including leased out) (Article 209 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation);
Under the economic jurisdiction (for state or municipal unitary enterprises (Article 294 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation)) or operational management (for institutions and state-owned enterprises (Article 296 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation));
Leased items of property, plant and equipment, i.e. being in temporary possession and use or in temporary use, incl. received under a financial lease (leasing) agreement (Chapter 34 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation).
The correct classification of fixed assets is a pledge not only of the organization's error-free filling of the federal form statistical observation № 11 "Information on the availability and movement of fixed assets (funds) and other non-financial assets" and obtaining reliable results of the analysis of the effectiveness of their use, but also a factor influencing the outcome of tax disputes regarding the payment of income tax. In addition, the correct classification of objects determines characteristics accounting for them - the recognition process, the assessment methodology, the procedure for reflection in the financial statements and other accounting aspects, the range of which is regulated by a number of regulatory legal acts in force in the territory of the Russian Federation.
Appendix 1
Sources of formation of the fixed capital of the organization